Abstract: SUMMARY The author has attempted a revision of all the African species of Terminalia. She has examined all of the type specimens, except those which were destroyed in Berlin during the recent war, those which are housed in the historic herbaria at Paris and Geneva, and those of two species collected by Italian botanists, which have not been located. She has studied approximately 1400 specimens, and this comprises the bulk of the material hitherto collected. One hundred and fifteen specific names have been used in this genus in Tropical Africa; they have all been accounted for. Only twenty-eight species are fully accepted in this account; a key for their identification is provided; they are all fully described and each is illustrated by one plate of drawings. Synonymy is given in full, and reasons for that which is new are given. For each of the twenty-eight species a full bibliography, vernacular names, notes on variation and notes on distribution and ecology are given; a sufficient number of specimens to cover the geographical distribution and to illustrate the range of variation has been selected for citation. Seven species which have been previously described and named are treated as being imperfectly known as the available material is scanty, and they only receive brief mention. All other names hitherto used in Terminalia in Africa are either treated as synonyms, or reasons are given as to why, at the present, they should not be used. Attention is drawn to a further five taxa, which may be new species, but have never been named and described; these are also treated as ‘imperfectly known’ species; the available material is insufficient to allow a more definite taxonomic judgement.
Abstract: Summary The effects of fertilization of forage crops vary with soil types, relative levels of fertility within soil type, ratios of available nutrients, crops, and climatic conditions. Increased forage yields result from application of the plant-growth nutrient which is most limiting in the soil. The chemical composition of forages may be altered by fertilization. Application of a nutrient in quantities greater than those required for maximum yield response usually results in luxury consumption of the nutrient. The nutrients whose level in plants may be increased by large applications include nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, sulfur, and cobalt. The nitrogen and phosphorus levels in leguminous forage usually were not influenced by heavy applications of these nutrients. Biological assays of forages produced with different fertilizer treatments have yielded varying results. Several studies with sheep and rabbits have indicated that applications of phosphorus fertilizer increase the biological value of forages when these forages are fed alone or in highly simplified rations. Application of limestone to the soil has been shown to exert a favorable effect on the biological value of forage. Forages grown on light soils have lower biological value for guinea pigs than do forages grown on heavy soils. Other, more numerous reports indicate no difference in biological value of forage due to level of soil fertility.
Abstract: Summary Since the Union of South Africa was founded in 1910, the volume of dairy production and consumption has increased--both in total amount and per capita. This growth is part of the evolution of the purely pastoral land of the last century into a predominantly mining, and, finally, into a predominantly industrialised, economy. Although dairy development is hampered by the fact that over 30% of the country is arid and another 34% semiarid, the latter portion now contributes at least 24% of the butter and 29% of the cheese output. Production of thees two commodities, as well as of condensed, dried, and fluid milk, also has increased greatly in the more humid areas on which sound future development depends. Official assistance is responsible for much of the progress made by dairying in general, but world advances in equipment design also have been important. State-sponsored control of marketing, which dominates the agricultural economy, has resulted in the one-channel schemes of the Dairy Industry Control Board in regard to national butter and cheese output, and of the new Cape Milk Board in regard to fluid milk in one centre. Dairy Board policy has resulted in the more rapid advance of producers' prices for manufacturing milk and cream as compared with retail prices for final products. The producers' share of the increased retail prices for butter and cheese has also risen, but proportionate manufacturing costs have been reduced. Commercial butter and cheese manufacture on the farm--a predominant factor over 40 yr. ago--is slowly disappearing. Although affected by the Dairy Board's licensing policy and improved transport facilities, the tendency for fewer processing units of greater capacity--also observed in the fluid-milk trade--is a normal economic development. When South Africa has been unable to absorb its total butter and cheese stocks, including receipts from S.W. Africa and the Protectorates, at ruling prices, the Dairy Board has exported the surplus, usually at a loss. Various assisted consumption schemes have used some of these excess stocks, and it is obvious that in the still-expanding industrial economy the future of dairying must depend heavily on the large potential home demand which can be met through the better utilisation of natural resources and the resulting improved milk solids output.
Abstract: SUMMARY. * 1The existing information about the Tertiary geology and elimate of Africa is collated and discussed critically. * 2There is no evidence for a revolution in the climate and fauna of Africa (following incursion from Asia) after the Miocene. * 3The arguments in favour of the equator having remained in its present position through the Tertiary are regarded as stronger than those in favour of its southward shift (through some 45). * 4The passerine avifauna of Africa is analysed by biomes and with respect to its affinity with the avifaunas of Europe and Asia. * 5The difference between the lowland evergreen and the savanna avifaunas is great, at the generic as well as at the specific level; that between the lowland evergreen and the montane evergreen is nearly as great–so much that they must largely have evolved in isolation from each other. * 6Floristic evidence is adduced and compared with the faunistic. * 7The bio-geographical data are discussed in relation to the geological and the climatic.
Abstract: Summary Sixteen cows which had been depleted of the grain factor(s) were used in 21 trials to study the effect on milk production by replacing part of the T.D.N. in an all-hay ration with either beet pulp, sugar beets, corn gluten meal or soybean oil meal. In 9 of 10 trials a significant increase in 4 per cent F.C.M. was obtained when various levels of beet pulp or sugar beets replaced an equal amount of T.D.N. in the hay. In 9 of 11 trials a significant increase in F.C.M. was obtained when various amounts of corn gluten meal or soybean oil meal replaced an equal amount of T.D.N. in the hay. The tendency for the per cent of butterfat in the milk to increase when beet pulp or sugar beets replaced part of the hay was observed. In view of the low fat content of beet pulp, sugar beets and most of the corn gluten meals and soybean oil meals used in these trials, it is apparent that the first deficiency of an all-hay ration for milk production is not fat per se. The results indicate that the "so-called" grain factor(s) or the unidentified milk-stimulating factor(s) is stored also in beet pulp, sugar beets, corn gluten meal and soybean oil meal.
Abstract: Summary (1) This experiment was designed to determine the phosphorus requirement of dairy cattle when a ration of alfalfa hay with less than 0.2 percent phosphorus, corn silage, and corn was fed. (2) The low phosphorus ration caused an immediate lowering of the inorganic blood phosphorus.These values remained lower than normal during the first eighteen months of age. (3) The blood calcium values were highest during the time that the phosphorus values were lowest. The calcium values were slightly higher than the normal values during the first 18 months of age but were still within normal range. (4) Other symptoms of phosphorus deficiency exhibited by the heifers in lot I (low phosphorus ration) were depraved appetite and a reduced appetite for hay and silage. (5) The ration fed' the heifers in lot I which contained from 5.7 to 9.9 grams of phosphorus per day from three to 18 months of age was insufficient when the calcium-phosphorus ratio was from 4:1 to 5:1 and when the sources of vitamin D were five pounds of sun-cured alfalfa hay and sunshine. (6) Ten and three tenths grams of phosphorus per day appeared to furnish sufficient phosphorus for the heifers in lot II fed the basal ration supplemented with bone meal from three to six months of age. (7) Ten to 12 grams of phosphorus daily furnished sufficient phosphorus for normal growth, maintenance, and for the development of the fetus from 18 months of age to first calving as indicated by blood phosphorus and the strength and size of calves at birth. (8) During gestation the blood calcium and phosphorus values were normal for both groups. The blood phosphorus values of both groups decreased markedly immediately prior to parturition. (9) The phosphorus requirement for growth is not directly proportional to body weight but probably depends on the rate of growth. Consequently, the method used in this experiment of feeding about 0.2 per cent of the dry matter as a low phosphorus ration to the animals in lot I and 0.41 per cent phosphorus as optimum phosphorus level to those in lot II is not a satisfactory method of studying phosphorus requirement for growth. However, under practical farm conditions in which alfalfa hay and the cereal grains furnish protein and energy, calves consume more food as they grow older even though the rate of growth declines.
Abstract: Summary. * 1There has been a continuous land surface in the New Zealand area since the beginning of the Mesozoic epoch. The early Triassic period appears to have been a time when there was a direct land connection with the north. In the late Triassic a flora consisting of Equisctales, Filicales, and Ginkgoales was common to New Zealand and other southern lands. This flora, together with Sphenodon, Liopelma, and possibly Peripatus, would date from the time of the former northern land connection. * 2In the later Triassic and in the Jurassic periods there were times when the land was lower and a long series of marine sediments was laid down. Throughout this time there flourished on the land surface a flora including Filicales, Cycadofilices, Podozamites, and the early forms of Coniferales. The Jurassic flora was nearly uniform in character throughout the world, extending beyond the Arctic and Antarctic circles. * 3In Cretaceous times the land in the New Zealand area was of continental dimensions. It extended to the north so as to connect with New Guinea and North-Eastern Australia, but Western Australia was separated from this continent by an arm of the sea. A sea also intervened between the New Zealand area and Southern Australia (with Tasmania), but the land extended to the south and east so as to include the area of the submarine plateau on which now stands the Auckland, Campbell, Antipodes, and Chatham Islands. The Antarctic continent during this period of elevation no doubt extended farther to the north, approaching perhaps within a few hundred miles of the New Zealand continent. Possibly Macquarie Island was much larger than at present. Mr. H. Hamilton informs me that it contains altered sedimentary rocks of unknown age. According to Thomson (Rept. Austr. Ant. Exp., Zool. vol. iv. p. 60, 1918), the late Jurassic or early Cretaceous was a period of emergent lands all round the Pacific. The map given by Hedley (Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. W. vol. xxiv. p. 404, 1899) represents precisely what, judging from the present New Zealand flora and the evidence gradually accumulating of the flora of New Guinea and the islands of the western Pacific, I think necessary for a land connection in the Cretaceous period. The route taken by plants and animals migrating between New Zealand and the north is as clearly marked by the present distribution of Agathis and Araucaria as by that of Placostylus. The accompanying map, therefore, shows a former land bridge by way of Lord Howe Island, New Caledonia, and the New Hebrides, but I cannot follow Mr. Hedley in his Antarctic conncetions to the southward. The Cretaceous period was important in the history of New Zealand, which afterwards was not again united with any other land. The period of land connection with the north must have lasted some time, for two continental floras succeeded one another in the New Zealand area. The first comprised the modern types of Coniferales and Filicales, and the more primitive Angiosperms such as Nothofagus. Such genera as Araucaria, Libocedrus, Phyllocladus, and Nothofagus appear to have arisen in North America and migrated along the western shore of the Pacific; hence their presence in Australia and New Zealand but absence from Africa. The second flora included the bulk of the ancestors of the Malayan element in the present flora. It included Angiosperms, and with it were associated birds, lizards, insects, and other animals. Overseas came many animals and plants, some from Australia and Tasmania across the Tasman Sea, and a few from the shores of the Antaretic continent, which supported vegetation. The New Zealand continent not only received but gave to neighbouring lands some of its productions. It was a centre for the development of many peculiar groups of plants and animals. Shut off from mammals which spread over the world in late Mesozoic and early Tertiary times, its birds filled their place, and a great variety of flightless forms–Dinornithidæ, Apteryx, rails –originated. In the same diversified and extensive land area the plants likewise increased and differentiated along lines adapted to different stations. Hence arose the many species of Hebe, Coprosma, Celmisia, Olearia, Carmichaelia, and others. It was in the southern portion of the continental area that this new world of life came into existence. Some of these forms wandered back along the land bridge to the north, as Carmichaelia and Phormium; a few found their way to the southern part of Australia and Tasmania, as Aciphylla, Celmisia, and Psychrophyton; while some even reached the shores of Antarctica, as Pseudopanax and perhaps Dacrydium. * 4On the breaking down of the land connection to the north the exchange of species between New Zealand and other countries was confined to such as could by chance cross a considerable stretch of ocean. Nevertheless, a great many species of plants both arrived and departed from New Zealand, the lands both receiving and giving being mainly those in the same latitudes -Australia, Tasmania, and South America. A small north and south movement between Polynesia and New Zealand also took place. But in accordance with the means of and opportunities for dispersal this moving population has the charateristics of the inhabitants of truly oceanic islands. The principal sections of the flora received since New Zealand severed its last, direct land connection are the orchids and the Australian species. The flora as it stands today I have endeavoured to represent by means of a diagram (fig. 1). Its derivation for the most part by direct land connection in the north, gives its forests which have nearly half of their species woody plants (some trees and shrubs are included in the Composites), and also a considerable proportion of woody species in the scrub and grassland formations. Continental conditions including diversified mountainous country are shown by the mountain plants equalling the forest plants (30 per cent. each). From Dr. Cockayne's work on the vegetation of New Zealand, I gather that he considers that the mountain plants were mainly differentiated in late Tertiary times. This may be so, but large distinct genera evidently require a longer period for their differentiation. The paucity of orchids, so abundantly developed in New Guinea and New Caledonia, leads one to conclude that this familyireached its highest development after New Zealand's connection with the north had been severed. Composites, which figure so largely in the New Zealand flora (14 per cent.), are mainly plants of the scrub and grassland areas. Their great development is perhaps a result of continental conditions in both early and late Tertiary times. In the preparation of this paper I have endeavoured to group the plants and some of the animals of New Zealand according to their place of origin. For the facts of plant distribution I am especially indebted to the works of Cheeseman, Cockayne, and Skottsberg. The main groups of animals not dealt with-earthworms, insects, spiders, and crustacea-have all been used to support the theory of an Antarctic connection in late Mesozoic or early Tertiary times. But opinion is not unanimous on this point, and I venture to predict that, as methods of dispersal itlnong the invertebrates are better known, the arguments for trans-oceanic migration will be strengthened.
