Abstract: In this study, we explored the level and pattern of sexual size dimorphism and sexual shape dimorphism in two closely related Bombina species that have low levels of sexual dimorphism in body size and shape. We applied an experimental protocol to explore sexual variations in morphological traits, including a preliminary evaluation of the measurement error. Mean measurement error (MME) and measurement error index (MEI) were estimated on each of the eleven morphometric variables to exclude any possible subjective factor in measuring and to perform, for the first time, an objective functional and statistical evaluation of sexual size differences in the two species. Even if statistically significant, each difference that lies below the level of uncertainty of the measure could not be reliable. Therefore, statistically significant differences in head shape have been rejected, due to an average difference between males and females smaller than the possible MME. We detected significantly longer distal segments of the hind limbs in males, which could account for their use in mating behaviour (e.g. scramble competition, water-wave communication). However, major and more reliable evidences of sexual dimorphism have been found on forelimb measures (MEI > 1), in particular humerus length and amplexus, which are significantly larger in males than in females. These results indicate a mating related sexual dimorphism, when larger and stronger forelimbs can give an advantage during coupling as well as during male-male fighting. The mean measurement error values and formulas provided in this work could be applied to future morphometric studies on Bombina species.
Abstract: The ecological status of 203 amphibian aquatic breeding sites, selected from the national database of the Societas Herpetologica Italica (SHI), was surveyed in the period 2008-2009 to assess their ecological status. Sites were randomly extracted, after stratification by the three biogeographical regions present in Italy, besides Sardinia and Sicily. The field surveys, conducted by professionals, amateurs and volunteers, showed that since 1979 about 11% of the sites were destroyed or no more suitable for the reproduction of amphibians that bred in the same site in the past. The percentage of destroyed or altered sites was 8%, both in the Mediterranean and Alpine biogeographical regions, and 15% in the Continental one. However, there were no statistical significant differences among the regions, suggesting that the rate of amphibian site loss was similar in different parts of Italy. This nation-wide monitoring project demonstrated that in Italy, during the last thirty years, a relevant proportion of amphibian breeding habitats has been destroyed or altered. The main cause of site alteration were land reclamation and water extraction.
Abstract: Despite the abundance of octapodal species and their evolutionary importance in originating terrestrial locomotion, the
locomotion mechanics of spiders has received little attention so far. In this investigation we use inverse dynamics to study the
locomotor performance of Grammostola mollicoma (18ï g). Through 3-D kinematic measurements, the trajectory of the eight limbs
and cephalothorax or abdomen allowed us to estimate the motion of the body centre of mass (COM) at different speeds. Classic
mechanics of locomotion and multivariate analysis of several variables such as stride length and frequency, duty factor,
mechanical external work and energy recovery, helped to identify two main gaits, a slow (speed <11ï cmï sâ1) one and a fast one
characterised by distinctive 3-D trajectories of COM. The total mechanical work (external + internal) calculated in the present
study and metabolic data from the literature allowed us to estimate the locomotion efficiency of this species, which was less than
4%. Gait pattern due to alternating limb support, which generates asymmetrical COM trajectories and a small but consistent
energy transfer between potential and kinetic energies of COM, is discussed both in terms of coordination indices and by
referring to the octopod as formed by two quadrupeds in series. Analogies and differences of the newly obtained parameters with
the allometric data and predictions are also illustrated.
Abstract: The tadpoles of Yellow-bellied toad (Bombina variegata) can be easily recognized from other Italian anuran species, except those of B. pachypus (though the two congeneric species are allopatric). In this paper we report morphometric data on B. variegata tadpoles from a Lombard population living near a torrent at 450 m a.s.l. On a sample of 264 tadpoles (stages 19-44, according to Gosner, 1960) we measured the following five variables: snout-vent length, tail length, maximum tail height, total length and weight. We found a slight allometric relationship between snout-vent length and tail length, while, as expectes,.the weight is nearly proportional to the cube of linear measures. According to literature data, our results point to highly constant proportions during the development phases up to prometamorphic stages. The ratio between snout-vent length and tail length was about 0.75 during the whole growing phase, while from stage 42 the proportion increases as the resorption of the tail starts.
Abstract: The ecological researches on Bombina v. variegata (Linnaeus, 1758) carried out in Lombardy beginning from 1994 are still in progress. Here, attention is focused on the seasonal pattern from 1994 to 2001 and thermal ecology of a population living at 450 m a.s.l.; these data were compared with other Bombina populations present at higher altitudes. The activity cycle of yellow-bellied toads started in April or May and lasted for 4-5 months. Breeding occurred from the end of May to early August (mean = 60.33 days, SD = 7.03). Females laid eggs on 50 - 71 days, while larval development was completed in 28-107 days (mean = 54.83; SD = 35.12). Yellow-bellied toads left the aquatic site from August to September, although in 1996 one specimen was captured in November (TH2O - 7.3 °C TAIR = 6.9 °C). During different years (1994-2001), the number of adult specimens captured (NTOT = 673) varied significantly between the two sexes (G = 23.185; df = 7; P = 0.002). Also the analysis of individual annual phases (beginning of activity, reproduction, pre-hibernation) revealed significant differences in sex-ratio (G = 14.309; df = 5; P = 0.014). The M/F ratio was 1/1 at the beginning of the season, skewed to males during the breeding season (May-July), but was in favour of females before hibernation (August-October). Concerning thermobiology, the beginning of activity started with mean temperatures above 10 °C. Analysis of thermal data showed that the breeding period was not correlated with mean air temperature (Spearman, rs = 0.081; df = 4; P = 0.8), while a weak negative correlation was found between the duration of reproduction and mean water temperature (Spearman, rs = -0.531; df = 4; P = 0.1). Water temperatures proved also negatively correlated with the length of larval development (Spearman, rs = -0.69; df = 3; P = 0.05).
Abstract: Abstract
Samples of Eurasian badger faeces (n = 147) were collected at monthly intervals from October 1997 until December 1999 in an area of the Italian Prealps (58 km2), on the eastern coast of Lario (Como Lake). Altitude of the area range between 200 and 1300 m.
Badger scats were analysed to estimate the relative volume and the frequency of occurrence of identifiable food items. Fruits, arthropodes, earthworms and mammals were the main food categories. Significant statistical differences were found between the seasonal frequency of occurrences of arthropodes, earthworms and mammals, however the small sample size in summer does not allow us to make definitive conclusions. We discuss also the differences with other studies results in similar areas. The wide range of food items eaten by badgers and the differences recorded in different seasons can support the idea of the badger as a "generalist" species with an opportunist feeding strategy.
Abstract: Abstract
The diet of a small population of Eurasian badger (Meles meles), which lives in the Natural Reserve Lago di Piano (Lombard Prealps), was studied by faecal analysis. The badger scats (n = 118) were collected, at monthly intervals, from June 1997 to July 1999 from latrines and other sites near setts or badger paths. Badger faeces were analysed to estimate the frequency of occurrence and the relative volume of the food items. Fruits, Arthropods and Earthworms are the main food categories, while Mammals and Birds are less important. Vegetables, Reptiles, Amphibians and Gastropods are the other groups which were found. Our outcomes are discussed, comparing them with other studies results carried out in similar areas. Similarities and differences recorded in the feeding behaviour of badger populations which live in Prealpine area support the idea of an opportunist species, that is able to exploit the available feeding resources.
Key-words: Meles meles; diet; trophic niche; mountainous environment; Italy
Abstract: Abstract - The food of the pine marten, Martes martes (L, 1758), in Northern Luino area (Varese county, Lombardy, Italy) (Mammalia, Mustelidae) - 148 samples of pine marten (Martes martes) faeces were collected between 1996 and 1999. Study area is a small collecting site which is placed in Northern Luino area (Varese county). The analysis shows that the diet of the pine marten in this area is based on vertebrates preys, with seasonal presence of fruits and insects.
Key Words: Martes martes, diet, mountain area, Italy
Abstract: Abstract - The distribution of badger (Meles meles L, 1758) setts in Northern Luino area (Varese county, Lombardy, Italy) (Mammalia, Mustelidae) - Between 1989 and 1997 we collected data from 38 badger (Meles meles) setts placed in the Northern Luino area (Varese county). In this work we explain data about categories of setts, their distribution in relation with altitude, orientation of mountain slopes, geological and vegetational characteristics of the study area.
Abstract: FOOD OF EUROPEAN BADGER (MELES MELES L.) IN NORTHERN LUINO AREA (VARESE COUNTY, ITALY)
Abstract.
European badger's feces (N = 218) were collected at monthly intervals from october 1989 to december 1991 on the mountains of the area between the eastern coast of the Lake Maggiore and the Swiss border in the county of Varese (Lombardy, Italy).
Feces were analysed in order to identify the different food items and their frequency of occurrence (number of identified items: Ne = 949).
During the whole year fruits are more frequently found: in particular chestnuts are found from autumn till the beginning of summer and represent the fundamental food for this population of badgers. Late in summer cherries, figs and grapes are most frequently consumed.
Among animal food items Artropodes can be found in different quantities according to the season. The most common family are: Carabidae, Geotrupidae and Silphidae (Coleoptera); Gryllotalpidae (Orthoptera); Vespidae (Hymenoptera).
Other food items are: cereals; vegetals (grass and roots); birds; mammals; gasteropods. (Represent 10% of the total amount).
Results show that badgers can be considered "generalist" because of feed wide range of food items. Their diet seem to depend on territorial avaliability with an opportunistic strategy like other badgers population in southern Europe.
Abstract: La locomozione terrestre ha un ruolo cruciale nella vita animale: permette lo spostamento, anche su grandi distanze, alla ricerca di cibo, la fuga dai predatori, lâinseguimento delle prede o la ricerca del partner. Velocità o accelerazioni maggiori possono spesso fare la differenza. Muoversi costa: nei pesci circa un terzo dellâenergia ricavata dallâalimentazione viene spesa nel lavoro muscolare, un altro terzo serve a mantenere il metabolismo basale e il restante terzo, tolto quello che va disperso con urina e feci, serve alla crescita e alla riproduzione. Soluzioni che permettano un risparmio energetico nella locomozione possono andare direttamente ad incrementare le risorse disponibili per crescita e riproduzione, ed essere quindi di grande vantaggio per lâindividuo e la specie. Le considerazioni appena esposte, entrambe logiche ma apparentemente contraddittorie, trovano una loro collocazione nel quadro, tracciato da Charles Darwin, di una evoluzione per selezione naturale. Nella cornice del processo evolutivo, lo studio della locomozione terrestre viene affrontato in termini filogenetici e di ottimizzazione, cioè rivolti a capire come i processi selettivi abbiano favorito soluzioni che tendono a massimizzare i risultati minimizzando i costi. I primi animali terrestri dotati di arti locomotori erano artropodi aracnidi, quindi ottapodi. Dâaltra parte, nei vertebrati, il modello a quattro arti sviluppatosi in ambiente acquatico si va riadattando alla locomozione terrestre: un esempio di exaptation. I primi vertebrati terrestri si muovono ânuotandoâ sulla terraferma, muovendo gli arti come pinne e la spina dorsale sul piano coronale. Queste andature sono poco efficienti dal punto di vista energetico. Importanti modificazioni, modellate dalla selezione naturale, a carico della spina dorsale e degli arti hanno portato i mammiferi a perfezionare andature diverse ed a raggiungere velocità , relativamente alla massa corporea, maggiori. Le principali andature: marcia, trotto e galoppo, si differenziano per le velocità relative e per il pattern di movimento degli arti. Analizzando i costi energetici delle diverse andature a velocità crescenti si osserva lâesistenza di velocità ottimali, alle quali il costo energetico raggiunge un minimo. Anche nel passaggio dal quadrupede al bipede lâevoluzione ha dovuto fare i conti con il materiale a disposizione e, attraverso mutazioni che si sono via via affermate, si è giunti ai modelli di marcia e corsa nellâuomo e negli uccelli corridori. Molte sono le domande cui stiamo cercando di rispondere: qualâè il numero di arti ottimale? Qualâè il pattern comune, se câè, delle locomozioni miriapodi, ottapodi, esapodi, quadrupedi e bipedi? Qualâè il significato dei diversi tipi di galoppo? La cornice teorica impostata da Darwin ci ha permesso e ci permetterà di far luce su questi ed altri interrogativi.
Abstract: Walk (W), run/trot (R/T) and skip/gallop (S/G) represent the universal gait types for bipeds/quadrupeds on Earth. Each type has been extensively studied by both metabolic and biomechanical research. The main characterizing aspect of those gaits resides in the different strategy to save mechanical energy within the body during progression, and consequently to minimize the energy expenditure: pendulum-like exchange between gravitational potential and kinetic energies (W), storage/release of elastic energy in tendons (R/T), and a combination of the two (S/G).
Almost 50 years ago, investigators started challenging human locomotion in different gravitational environments (Margaria & Cavagna, 1964) and rightly concluded that on the Moon walking should be possible only at very low speeds, and that 'terrestrial' running would have been mechanically difficult to adopt there. Later on, a general predicting equation for the speed of dynamically equivalent walking in hetero-gravity has been proposed and validated (Minetti 2001a, 2001b).
While studying the 3rd locomotor paradigm for humans, 'skipping' was biomechanically analysed in details and found to be particularly suitable for low gravity environments (Minetti 1998). That insight was confirmed by inspection of NASA footage of Apollo missions, where astronauts frequently preferred to skip.
We propose to set up a new, more focused study on human skipping (and small quadruped gallop) in simulated hypogravity during parabolic flights. By using a corridor of dynamometric platforms and 3D motion capture we intend to specifically check the predictions about those gaits and investigate the suitability of a custom training program for humans to adapt/enhance/extend their locomotion repertoire on the Lunar environment.
Bibliography
Margaria R., Cavagna G. Human locomotion in subgravity. Aerospace Med. 35: 1140-1146, 1964.
Minetti A. E. The biomechanics of skipping gaits: a third locomotor paradigm? Proc. R. Soc. B 265: 1227-1235, 1998.
Minetti A. E. Invariant aspects of human locomotion in different gravitational environments. Acta Astron. 49(3-10): 191-198, 2001.
Minetti A. E. Walking on other planets. Nature 409: 467-469, 2001.
Abstract: Terrestrial mammals with vertically oriented limbs moving in a parasagittal plane, and generally larger than 1 kg of body mass, are defined âcursorialâ. Most of them belong to the orders Carnivora, Artiodactyla and Perissodactyla, which comprehend the fastest terrestrial mammals: the cheetah, the fastest land animal on sprint, and the pronghorn, the fastest land animal on long distance.
Cursorial mammals can be preys or predators, living in open or mixed habitats and different terrains. We investigated the two high-speed gait used by cursorial species, transverse and rotary gallop, from both biomechanical and functional point of view. In transverse gallop the placement of the second hind foot is followed by that of the controlateral forefoot, while in rotary gallop it is followed by the ipsilateral forefoot, and the sequence of footfalls appears to rotate around the body. 351 sequences, filmed in the wild, have been analysed to assess the gallop type of 89 investigated mammal species belonging to the three mentioned orders. Biometrical, ecological and physiological parameters have been collected for each species both from literature data and from experimental measures.
Non-parametrical statistical analyses, using 10000 sampled tables with Monte Carlo simulation, indicated that transverse âhorse-likeâ gallop was significantly more frequent in diurnal, gregarious species that live in open habitats, such as grasslands and plains. Rotary âcheetah-likeâ gallopers resulted significantly more frequent among crepuscular, solitary predator species that live in more mixed habitats. Around 20% of the investigated species, mainly canids, pronghorns and some antelopes, performed transverse gallop at slow speed and rotary gallop at higher speed.
Our results indicated a strictly relationship among body shape, gait, speed and manoeuvrability. Rotary gallop, gait adopted by the majority of fast-running mammals, gives also the advantage of higher manoeuvrability at any speed, especially useful when running on rugged terrains in mixed habitats. Larger bodies advantage species that live in open habitat, like grasslands and deserts, with the consequences of less agility and less spine flexibility. Among these species transverse gallop is prevailing. Some gregarious preys and cooperative predators, which live in grasslands and savannahs, have to balance the needs for high endurance, strength and longer limbs to run faster. More likely they show a speed dependent gallop pattern.
Abstract: Habitat fragmentation is one of the major threats to wildlife. To contrast the loss of biodiversity associated to fragmentation, the European Council promoted the Natura 2000 Network. In Lombardy, the Regional Ecological Network (REN) project has been launched. REN has the purpose to maintain the existent connections among patches of natural habitats and protected areas, and to create new connections in critical areas. Parafluvial zones have been indicated as main corridors and main branches of the REN.
Our study has been carried out in the SCI IT2030005 Palude di Brivio, 302 ha of extension, included in the Northern Adda Regional Park. Palude di Brivio is a relatively insulated area, with the river Adda flowing on the western border, a provincial main road and a railway on the eastern border, two urban areas, Calolziocorte and Brivio (Lecco province,), closing respectively the northern and southern access. The SCI host habitats of community importance of various typologies associated to freshwater environments, natural and semi-natural grassland formations, mires and fens, forests (alluvial forests with Alnus glutinosa and Fraxinus excelsior) These habitats constitute refuges and corridors connecting the SCI to the natural parafluvial strip, representing the core of the Regional Park.
Mammal populations have been investigated using different methodological approaches: line transects for tracks and signs of presence (including collection of pellets and scats), live trapping for small mammals, camera trapping for medium-size and large mammals, recording sessions for bats. Threatens for mammal fauna have been detected and quantified during surveys sessions and using land use maps.
During the survey, 20 species of terrestrial mammals have been detected and identified: Erinaceaomorpha 1 (Erinaceus europaeus), Soricomorpha 4 (Sorex antinorii, Crocidura suaveolens, C. leucodon, Talpa europaea), Lagomorpha 1 (Sylvilagus floridanus), Rodentia 8 (Sciurus vulgaris, Muscardinus avellanarius, Myodes glareoulus, Arvicola amphibious, Micromys minutus, Apodemus sp., Rattus norvegicus, Myocastor coypus) Carnivora 4 (Vulpes vulpes, Meles meles, Mustela nivalis, Martes foina), Artiodactyla 2 (Cervus elaphus, Capreolus capreolus).
Among them, the common dormouse is included in annexe IV of the Habitat directive, the Eurasian harvest mouse has high priority of conservation in Lombardy and the water vole is of particular interest for conservation of riparian habitats. High priority of conservation has the red squirrel as well: woods along the rivers are the most important source areas for the autochthonous squirrel populations of the Po plain, but they are under threat for the presence and the spread of the introduced species Sciurus carolinensis, luckily not found in Brivio. However, other problematic alien species have been detected: the coypu and the eastern cottontail. Further, in spite of the relative confinement of the area, large mammals like the deer and the roe deer are steadily present. Another interesting species, the European polecat (Mustela putorius), signalled in the SCI during the recent past (1996), was not confirmed during our survey.
According to our observation, negative factors associated to landscape fragmentation were industrial building, roads and the railway along the margin of the SCI, and the presence of alien and domestic species, which represent predators, or competitors of small mammals. The network of transportation infrastructures and the high level of industrial urbanization act as barriers among mammal populations or have a trap effect for animals.
All of them lead to a high level of habitat fragmentation, which directly causes isolation of the natural areas and determine the land occupation causing a loss of suitable habitats for the wildlife. The edge effect, by-product of habitat fragmentation, induced the presence of invasive species from the surrounding agricultural (eastern cottontail, coypu) and urban (dogs, cats and rats) matrix. In addition, the periodical flooding of the Adda river when its level increases, due to the control of the dam located in Olginate municipality, north of the SCI, represents a relevant risk factor of mortality mainly for small mammals and a transitory reduction of their habitats.
The role of corridors in maintaining an adequate natural level of connectivity among populations has been heavily debated in conservation biology. In this case, the parafluvial strip represents the main aisles for mammal fauna along the north-south axis of the SCI.
The richness of the mammalian community, and the presence of meta-populations of medium size-large mammals, like the roe deer and the deer, indicates the importance of maintaining open corridors within the parafluvial environment and between the surrounding natural patches and it.
Abstract: The use of camera traps to survey and detect animal species is not real news. However, the recent progresses of digital photography and the availability of budget equipment determined a dramatic increase in the use of this technique. Camera trapping has been generally applied to the survey of big or medium size mammals. We present a case study where camera trapping has been applied to the survey of arboreal rodents, in particular squirrels. The red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) is declining in Lombardy due to the expansion of the invasive alien grey squirrel (S. carolinensis). Therefore, efficient monitoring programs of these species are of particular importance for conservation.
The study was carried out in the Site of Community Importance Oasi Le Foppe di Trezzo (SCI IT2050011), located in the territory of Parco Adda Nord (Lombardy, Italy), in the high Po plain. The area has a surface of 9.67 hectares and it is characterized by the presence of 9 artificial water basins in plain woodland with black locust, oaks, European hornbeam, poplars, hazelnuts and willows, surrounded by an agricultural and urbanized landscape. The main objective of our survey was the production of a check-list of mammal species. Besides camera trapping, we applied other traditional survey methodologies for terrestrial and arboreal mammals: trapping (Sherman live-traps), detection of sign and tracks, hair-tubes, periodical check of artificial nests.
For camera trapping survey, we used 3 infra-red camera units (Model Keep-Guard KG560) that were set to record 10 to 30 seconds video clips 24h per day. Cameras have been operated since January 2010 and they were periodically moved in 9 sites. In each trapping site the camera was blocked on tree trunks at variable height (from 30 to 180 cm). The camera objective was directed to an open area or animal path (3 sites), to the underwood (4 sites) or to a horizontal tree branch (2 sites). Sites were baited with different kind of food. Branches in particular were baited with hazel nuts, peanuts and fruits. A total of 822 video clips have been recorded in 326 camera trap-days. Percentage of failure (empty videos) was 27.7%, therefore the average capture efficiency was 1.5 animals per trap per day.
Red squirrel was considered only a potential, never observed, species. It was first detected on March 30 by a camera trap pointed to underwood. A second event was recorded on July 21 in a different underwood place, 15 days after the displacement of the camera trap. From that day, the red squirrels, at least two animals, have been constantly recorded by the device. In total 270 events of red squirrel have been recorded in 255 trapping day (1.1 squirrels / trap-day). Success ratio was 270/534 clips (50.6%). Grey squirrel has never been observed in the protected area, before. Its first detection occurred on August 7. This species has been recorded 8 times from August to the beginning of October, in the same site. A baited hair tube was put in front of the camera trap, and the behaviour of both red and grey squirrel was recorded.
Pointing the camera trap on baited horizontal branches, we obtained an even better efficiency. The first detection of a red squirrel was recorded after only 1 day (29 h) from the displacement of the camera trap in that position. In the same period we only collected from hair tubes 2 samples of red squirrel hairs and none of grey squirrel. Only 12 hair tubes were put in place in the study area. However, comparing the efficiency of hair tubes from literature data with that of camera trapping in our study, the latter seems to prevail. The added values of camera trap data are the possibility of individual recognition (for capture/recapture protocols) and to collect data about activity patterns of animals. The majority of the records was collected in autumn. In that period squirrels were active from 7:28 to 19:30, with three main activity peaks: morning (9 to 10); midday (12 to 13) and afternoon (17 to 18). The main observed activities, of course, were the search and collection of food (181 events), but also movements (86) and interactions with birds (3).
We would recommend the use of camera traps also for arboreal and low density species, as an enforcement of traditional methodologies. Spread control and monitoring programs of problematic species, like the alien and invasive grey squirrel, could be strongly improved applying this methodology.
Abstract: To our knowledge, there are no specific studies on herpetofauna of Fiemme Valley (province of Trento), and the existing data appear to be dated and incompletes. Aim of this work is to deliver an updated check-list of the amphibian and reptiles species living in this area and in few adjoining territories in the province of Bolzano.
Nineteen species have been detected in Fiemme Valley area: 7 belonging to amphibians (Salamandra atra, S. salamandra, Mesotriton alpestris, Bombina variegata, Bufo bufo, Rana temporaria, Pelophylax kl. esculentus) and 12 to reptiles (Anguis fragilis, Podarcis muralis, Zootoca vivipara, Lacerta bilineata, Hierophis viridiflavus, Zamenis longissimus, Coronella austriaca, Natrix natrix, N. tessellata, Vipera aspis, V. berus, Trachemys scripta).
Z. longissimus was recently observed in Fiemme Valley for the first time. For almost all the other species, previous observations (before 1990) were reconfirmed and new sites were recorded along the valley. In some cases their distribution areas were enlarged. The inspections made did not reconfirm S. atra, however the species is likely to be present in the mountain area of the Lagorai range. A small population of B. variegata, which appears to be missing in its historic site (Castello di Fiemme), has been observed in a territory bordering on the Fiemme Valley (Aldino, BZ). In the same area P. kl. esculentus can be found up to an altitude of 1100 m a.s.l. . On the other hand, T. scripta, which was observed in a lake at 978 m a.s.l. during 2000, has not been found afterwards. The site was probably not suitable for this allochthonous species.
Abstract: Quantitative pattern analysis, according to a new protocol based on literature review and new methodologies, has been applied to a sample of 268 fire and yellow-bellied toads ventral pattern digital images. Animals, belonging to four taxa (B. bombina, B. pachypus, B. v. variegata e B. v. scabra), have been collected from four Museum collections, except for a small sample of wild specimen images taken in field. Area ratio (AR) between the dark patches area and the yellow-orange background was significantly different among the four taxa, with a clear trend to decrease the dark part of the belly from Bb (AR = 70.3%) to Bv (AR = 49.3%), Bp (AR = 44.7%) and finally Bvs (AR = 22.7%). In paired comparisons the differences remained significant (ANOVA with Bonferroni: p < 0.001). Circularity (CI: p < 0.001), Heywood (HI: p < 0.001) and Elongation (EI: p < 0.05) indices gave significantly different results in Bv and Bp. They differed in shape of the dark particles, being more regular and circular-like in the latter species. These results, together with the multivariate analysis and the cross-correlation of the patterns underline a clear separation of Bb from the other taxa, a high intraspecific variability among Bv and a trend Bv, Bp, Bvs in several characters, with the Balkan subspecies more correlated to the Appennine species.
Abstract: Quantitative pattern analysis is a widespread method applied to individual identification as well as to population and species as diagnostic character. Pattern analysis bases on different scores assigned to different size and position of the pattern elements. The subjective manual score tables have been substitutes by the tools provided by digital images technology. Current methodologies are reviewed and a new method based on the cross-correlation formula, accounting for the relative position of the particles, is presented. The experimental test has been carried out on a sample of ventral pattern of Bombina variegata, B. pachypus and B. bombina. Based on our results, the following rules are proposed:
i) Standardization of the image acquisition, using one digital camera mounted on a stand, fixed settings (e.g. pixels, light, sensitivity) or use a standard distance and shot angle (90°). Put the specimen on a plain terrain or in a box, with ruler and colour checker.
ii) Choose an appropriate Region of Interest (ROI) and cut the image following fixed landmarks. Distorted images should be discarted or reshaped with specific tools (e.g. softwares designed for geometric morphometry).
iii) Particle analysis is based on the calculation of coloured areas ratio, particle perimeters and sizes. A series of standard calculated variables is proposed, namely: area ratio (AR), mean patch area and mean patch perimeter ratio (RMPA), circularity indices (CI, HI) and elongation index (EI).
iv) Several species of Amphibians do not change significantly colour pattern during their life. Hovewer, others could change it over time. In this case, it could be better select samples with similar size (age). Anyway, we suggest to photograph the single animal peridiocally when pattern analysis is applied to individual identification in longer-term studies.
