Hans-Joerg Althaus

Abstract: The potential of agent-based modeling (ABM) has been demonstrated in various research fields. However, three major concerns limit the full exploitation of ABM; (i) agents are too simple and behave unrealistically without any empirical basis, (ii) 'proof of concept' applications are too theoretical and (iii) too much value placed on operational validity instead of conceptual validity. This paper presents an operationalization approach to determine the key system agents, their interaction, decisionmaking and behavior for context specific ABM, thus addressing the above-mentioned shortcomings. The approach is embedded in the framework of Giddens' structuration theory and the structural agent analysis (SAA). The agents' individual decision-making (i.e. reflected decisions) is operationalized by adapting the analytical hierarchy process (AHP). The approach is supported by empirical system knowledge, allowing us to test empirically the presumed decision-making and behavioral assumptions. The output is an array of sample agents with realistic (i.e. empirically quantified) decision-making and behavior. Results from a Swiss mineral construction material case study illustrate the information which can be derived by applying the proposed approach and demonstrate its practicability for context specific agent-based model development.

Abstract: To perform life-cycle assessment studies, data on the production and use of the products is required. However, often only few data or measurements are available. Estimation of properties can be performed by applying scaling relationships. In many disciplines, they are used to either predict data or to search for underlying patterns, but they have not been considered in the context of product assessments hitherto. The goal of this study was to explore size scaling for commonly used energy conversion equipment, that is, boilers, engines, and generators. The variables mass M, fuel consumption Q, and costs C were related to power P. The established power-law relationships were M = 10(0.73.. 1.89)P(0.64.. 1.23) (R(2) � 0.94), Q = 10(0.06.. 0.68)P(0.82.. 1.02) (R(2) � 0.98) and C = 10(2.46.. 2.86)P(0.83.. 0.85) (R(2) � 0.83). Mass versus power and costs versus power showed that none of the equipment types scaled isometrically, that is, with a slope of 1. Fuel consumption versus power scaled approximately isometrically for steam boilers, the other equipments scaled significantly lower than 1. This nonlinear scaling behavior induces a significant size effect. The power laws we established can be applied to scale the mass, fuel consumption and costs of energy conversion equipments up or down. Our findings suggest that empirical scaling laws can be used to estimate properties, particularly relevant in studies focusing on early product development for which generally only little information is available.

Abstract: Construction and demolition (C&D) waste, being already the largest waste fraction in industrialized countries, is expected to increase in the future. C&D waste recycling has been considered to be a valuable option not only for minimizing C&D waste streams to landfills but also for mitigating primary mineral resource depletion. Even though the use of recycled mineral construction materials (RMCM) is regulated and successful application examples are available, construction stakeholders do not yet broadly apply them. Although various criteria hindering a transition towards a broader application of RMCM have been identified, it is yet unknown how these criteria differ among decisions, stakeholders and applications. We therefore analyze construction stakeholders� behavior, and decision-making regarding RMCM for the construction material market in Switzerland. Stakeholders� decision-making was quantified with the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) in a survey in combination with their behavior. The results demonstrate the importance of stakeholder interaction, i.e. most stakeholders decide which material to apply based on interaction with other stakeholders e.g., recommendations and specifications. However, the initial general specification by awarding authorities that construction should be sustainable has little relevance to the subsequent material decisions. On the contrary the role of the recommendation of engineers, have a high impact on the subsequent decisions by the other stakeholders. Results also confirm that RMCM are broadly accepted in civil engineering (CE), whereas in structural engineering (SE) RMCM are still a niche product. The good alignment of the outcome of decision modeling with observed behavior shows the usefulness of analyzing decision-making with AHP.

Abstract: Battery-powered electric cars (BEVs) play a key role in future mobility scenarios. However, little is known about the environmental impacts of the production, use and disposal of the lithium ion (Li-ion) battery. This makes it difficult to compare the environmental impacts of BEVs with those of internal combustion engine cars (ICEVs). Consequently, a detailed lifecycle inventory of a Li-ion battery and a rough LCA of BEV based mobility were compiled. The study shows that the environmental burdens of mobility are dominated by the operation phase regardless of whether a gasoline-fueled ICEV or a European electricity fueled BEV is used. The share of the total environmental impact of E-mobility caused by the battery (measured in Ecoindicator 99 points) is 15%. The impact caused by the extraction of lithium for the components of the Li-ion battery is less than 2.3% (Ecoindicator 99 points). The major contributor to the environmental burden caused by the battery is the supply of copper and aluminum for the production of the anode and the cathode, plus the required cables or the battery management system. This study provides a sound basis for more detailed environmental assessments of battery based E-mobility.

Abstract: This paper provides a detailed analysis of life cycle assessment (LCA) results of different building components (e.g. wooden wall, concrete roof) on different levels of simplification (from a comprehensive LCA including all materials and processes to the fully reduced component including only the main materials remaining in the component). The main objective is the determination of the relevance of materials and processes often neglected in simplified LCA of building components which aim at providing results of similar quality as comprehensive assessments with less effort. The studied simplifications are categorised in transportations of the building materials from the factory gate to the building site, some ancillary materials which are not obvious in the component, the building process itself and the associated cutting waste. The results show that transports and ancillary materials are of relevance while the building process and the cutting waste can be neglected. The heavier the used materials and the longer the transport distances the bigger is the influence of transports on the LCA results. The influence of the ancillary materials is highest for wooden constructions as a lot of screws nails and other connectors are essential. (c) 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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Abstract: Background. In product life cycle assessment (LCA), the attribution of environmental interventions to a product under study is an ambiguous task. This is due to a) the simplistic modeling characteristics in the life cycle inventory step (LCI) of LCA in view of the complexity of our techno-economic system, and b) to the non-tangible theoretical nature of the product system as a representation of the processes 'causally' linked to a product. Ambiguous methodological decisions during the setup of an LCI include the modeling of end-of-life scenarios or the choice of an allocation factor for the allocation of joint co-production processes. An important criterion for methodological decisions - besides the conformity with the relevant series of standards ISO 14 040 - is if the improvement options, which can be deduced from the LCI, are perceived by the decision-maker as to redirect the material flows at stake into more sustainable paths. Methods. From this functionalistic conception of LCA, this article develops a set of wood-specific requirements, an LCI of wood products has to fulfill to give adequate decision support under Central European conditions. These requirements serve as a basis for the evaluation of different allocation procedures in a case study related to the modeling of end-of-life scenarios in a product LCA of wood products. The case study discusses how the recycling and incineration of a creosote-treated railway sleeper (Am. tie) are modeled according to various methodological propositions for the solution of the allocation problems related to recycling and final disposal. A partial life cycle model of the railway sleeper demonstrates the effect of the different allocation procedures to the over-all result. Results and Discussion. The most important conclusion - apart from proposing a functionalistic approach to solve allocation problems - is that under Central European conditions both the material and energy aspects of wood and the related substitution and opportunity effects (opportunity 'cost') should be considered for the modeling of post-consumer waste wood in attributive product LCA, even when comparing products made of different materials.

Abstract: As a consequence of the introduction of limits on exhaust gas emissions and a target agreement between the Swiss association of car importers (auto-schweiz) and the Swiss government calling for a reduction in the specific fuel consumption, a considerable reduction of exhaust emissions of newly registered Swiss passenger cars occurred in the last 10 years. Also, for the near future an ongoing reduction of exhaust emissions of newly registered vehicles is expected. However, applying the concept of life cycle thinking, exhaust emission reductions may be outbalanced with an increase in specific car manufacturing expenditures and/or a longer use of the car. Thus, from the point of view of an individual car owner, a prolonged car use may be the environmentally preferable option. In order to investigate this question, a comprehensive analysis of the environmental performance of newly registered diesel and petrol passenger cars in the time period from 2000 to 2010 has been performed. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) has been employed focusing on three transport components: 'vehicle travel' (exhaust and abrasion emissions), 'fuel chain' (supply of fuels) and 'car infrastructure' (manufacturing, maintenance and disposal of cars). The presented model aims to gain insight into the issue of longevity and prolonged car use for the Swiss case, rather than giving ultimate recommendations. The analysis focuses on classical road pollutants (NO, and PM2.5) as well as on fuel consumption reduction and CO2. Moreover, impact assessment has been applied, employing a common approach: Eco-Indicator (EI) 99. The ranking of different car replacement options revealed prolonged car use as the environmentally better option. As a consequence of the continuous use of the car representing 2000 average technology, the components 'vehicle travel' and 'fuel chain' show a 10% and 9% higher performance, respectively. This effect is compensated by savings in 'car infrastructure' (26%). Uncertainty analysis has been performed by additional model runs with different parameter settings. Despite the fact that a considerably prolonged car use scores best for all additional model runs, the resulting differences between options further decrease. This holds particularly true, if a higher yearly average fuel reduction rate of 3% is assumed. Furthermore, applying an avoided burden concept for infrastructure modeling (Value Corrected Substitution (VCS)) shows the same effect. In both cases the resulting scores differ merely marginally between the considered options and would not allow for discrimination. As a consequence of these outcomes, it is not possible to give any general recommendation to Swiss car owners to extend the use of their cars, in the short term. (C) 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Abstract: Goal and Scope. Many life cycle assessment case studies neglect the production of capital goods that are necessary to manufacture a good or to provide a service. In ISO standards 14040 and 14044 the capital goods are explicitly part of the product system. Thus, it is doubtful if capital goods can be excluded per se as has been done in quite a number of case studies and LCA databases. There is yet no clear idea about if and when capital goods play an important role in life cycle assessments. The present paper evaluates the contribution of capital goods in a large number and variety of product and service systems. A classification of product and service groups is proposed to give better guidance on when and where capital goods should be included or can be neglected. Methods. The life cycle inventory database ecoinvent data v1.2 forms the basis for the assessment of the environmental importance of capital goods. The importance is assessed on the basis of several hundreds of cradle-to-gate LCAs of heat and electricity supply systems, of materials extraction and production, of agricultural products, and of transport and waste management services. The importance within product (and service) groups is evaluated with statistical methods by comparing the LCA results including and excluding capital goods. The assessment is based on characterised cumulative LCI results using the CML baseline characterisation factors of the impact categories of global warming, acidification, eutrophication, human toxicity, freshwater acquatic toxicity, terrestrial ecotoxicity, ionising radiation, and land competition, based on proxy indicators (fossil and nuclear) cumulative energy demand, and based on the endpoint indicators Eco-indicator 99 (H,A) mineral resources, human health, eco system quality and totals. Results. The analysis confirms the fact that capital goods cannot be excluded per se. On one hand, toxicity related environmental impacts such as freshwater ecotoxicity or human toxicity are more sensitive towards an inclusion or exclusion of capital goods. On the other, certain products like photovoltaic and wind electricity are very much or even completely affected by capital goods contributions, no matter which indicator is chosen. Nuclear electricity, agricultural products and processes, and transport services often behave differently (showing a higher or lower share of capital goods contribution) than products from other sectors. Discussions. Some indicators analysed in this paper show a rather similar behaviour across all sectors analysed. This is particularly true for 'mineral resources', and - to a lesser extent - for 'Eco-indicator 99 total', 'acidification' and 'climate change'. On the other hand, 'land use' and 'freshwater ecotoxicity' show the most contrasting behaviour with shares of capital goods' impacts between less than 1% and more than 98%. Recommendations. Capital goods must be included in the assessment of climate change impacts of non-fossil electricity, agricultural products and processes, transport services and waste management services. They must be included in any sector regarding the assessment of toxic effects. Energy analyses (quantifying the non-renewable cumulative energy demand) of agricultural products and processes, of wooden products and of transport services should include capital goods as well. The mixing of datasets including and excluding capital goods is no problem as long as their share on total impacts is low and partial omissions do not lead to a significant imbalance in comparative assertions. Perspectives. If in doubt whether or not to include capital goods, it is recommended to check two things: (1) whether maintenance and depreciation costs of capital equipment form a substantial part of the product price (Heijungs et al. 1992a), and (2) whether actual environmental hot spots occur along the capital goods' supply chain.

Abstract: Goal, Scope and Background. Telephony as well as remote data transfer is increasingly performed via mobile phone networks. However, the environmental consequences, in particular of the End-of-Life (EOL) treatment, of such network infrastructures have been investigated insufficiently to date. In the present report the environmental implications of the EOL treatment of a single GSM 900 antenna rack have been analysed. Methods. Based on comprehensive inventories of a GSM 900 antenna station rack and currently applied EOL treatment, the environmental impacts related to the EOL treatment of the rack are investigated. Six different EOL treatment scenarios are developed to find an environmentally safe treatment alternative. System expansion, i.e. inclusion of the production phase, is applied to all scenarios in order to consider different amounts of regained materials. Results and Discussion. The production of primary rack materials, especially that of palladium (accounts for almost 40% of the ecotoxicity impact category), to substitute lost materials dominates the overall environmental impact. Releases of heavy metals from landfilled rack components/materials and of by-products to the environment greatly influence the overall impacts on human health and ecosystem quality. The final disposal of rack components contributes to about 70% of the non-carcinogenic effects. Landfilled dust from steel production contributes to nearly 11% of this impact category. Conclusions. The results suggest that all precious metals containing electronic scrap should be treated in specially equipped metal recovery plants. A complete rack disassembly before processing in high-standard metal recovery plants is not necessary. An elaborated pre-treatment and fractionation of the scrap prior to precious material recovery does not lower the environmental impacts and is not mandatory and would only become environmentally interesting if high recovery of heavy metals is achieved. To avoid the formation and release of volatile and toxic heavy metal, incineration of electronic scrap as of by-products prior to landfilling should be avoided. To reduce the overall environmental load, a standardisation of the sizes of rack components, facilitating their re-use, is recommended.

Abstract: Introduction. This paper provides an overview on the content of the ecoinvent database and of selected metholodogical issues applied on the life cycle inventories implemented in the ecoinvent database. Goal, Scope and Background. In the year 2000, several Swiss Federal Offices and research institutes of the ETH domain agreed to a joint effort to harmonise and update life cycle inventory (LCI) data for its use in life cycle assessment (LCA). With the ecoinvent database and its actual data v1.1, a consistent set of more than 2'500 product and service LCIs is now available. Method. Nearly all process datasets are transparently documented on the level of unit process inputs and outputs. Methodological approaches have been applied consistently throughout the entire database content and thus guarantee for a coherent set of LCI data. This is particularly true for market and trade modelling (see, for example, electricity modelling), for the treatment of multioutput and of recycling processes, but also for the recording and reporting of elementary flows. The differentiation of diameter size for particulate matter emissions, for instance, allows for a more comprehensive impact assessment of human health effects. Data quality is quantitatively reported in terms of standard deviations of the amounts of input and output flows. In many cases qualitative indicators are reported additionally on the level of each individual input and output. The information sources used vary from extensive statistical works to individual (point) measurements or assumptions derived from process descriptions. However, all datasets passed the same quality control procedure and all information relevant and necessary to judge the suitability of a dataset in a certain context are provided in the database. Data documentation and exchange is based on the EcoSpold data format, which complies with the technical specification ISO/TS 14048. Free access to process information via the Internet helps the user to judge the appropriateness of a dataset. Concluding Remarks. The existence of the ecoinvent database proves that it is possible and feasible to build up a large interlinked system of LCI unit processes. The project work proved to be demanding in terms of co-ordination efforts required and consent identification. One main characteristic of the database is its transparency in reporting to enable individual assessment of data appropriateness and to support the plurality in methodological approaches. Outlook. Further work on the ecoinvent database may comprise work on the database content (new or more detailed datasets covering existing or new economic sectors), LCI (modelling) methodology, the structure and features of the database system (e.g. extension of Monte Carlo simulation to the impact assessment phase) or improvements in ecoinvent data supply and data query. Furthermore, the deepening and building up of international co-operations in LCI data collection and supply is in the focus of future activities.

Abstract: A life cycle assessment was carried out based on a detailed life cycle inventory for a typical GSM 900 mobile phone network and related End of Life (EOL) treatment infrastructure. The environmental relevance of the three life cycle phases: production, use and EOL treatment was analysed using IMPACT2002+. The environmentally preferable EOL treatment alternative was identified on the basis of six previously developed EOL treatment scenarios. The results indicate that the environmental impacts attributable to the use phase dominate the environmental impacts incurred over the entire life cycle of the network. The impacts of the production phase are primarily attributable to the energy intensive manufacturing of printed wiring boards (PWB). The EOL phase dominates the impacts on ecosystem quality. In particular the longterm emissions of heavy metals have critical effects. Detailed analysis of the EOL phase shows that recycling of network materials in general leads to a two fold reduction of environmental impacts: in the EOL phase itself as well as by means of the avoided primary production of materials recovered in the EOL phase. An increase in the material quality of the secondary precious and rare materials leads to a significant reduction in the impacts on human health. (c) 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Abstract: Goal, Scope and Background. This paper gives an overview on how the wood and packaging material production is inventoried in ecoinvent. Packaging materials have been a very important topic in the area of Life Cycle Assessment for more than twenty years. Wood is the most important renewable material and regenerative fuel used worldwide, and an important raw material for paper / board. Several methodological problems arising when inventorying wood for material and energetic uses in a generic database are discussed in more detail. Within the ecoinvent project, the Swiss data base for life cycle inventory data, two reports are dedicated to these two important topics - report No. 9 for wood and report No. 11 for packaging materials. Methods. The whole wood chain has been modeled in a consistent way. This allows one to use this data for LCAs of building materials, bioenergy or paper production. The data represent average technologies used in Central Europe in the year 2000. A revenue-based co-product allocation approach is used for the different outputs. Correction factors are introduced for the consistent modeling of mass-based, material inherent wood properties such as solar energy, carbon uptake and land use. For packaging materials, the datasets represent European average data for the most often used materials as well as specific datasets for the production of actual packaging boxes and containers. Results and Discussion. For wood, revenue-based allocation and the use of the correction factors for mass-related wood properties are shown and explained. For packaging materials, the importance of the raw material wood to the total load is shown. Furthermore trends in the data inventories for board packaging materials over the last two decades are discussed: mainly due to the increased comprehensiveness of the data, higher cumulative emissions can be observed. Conclusion. For wood, the database ecoinvent provides consistent datasets for the entire chain from forestry to intermediate products such as timber, different types of wood-based boards, chips, pellets, etc. For packaging materials, the number of datasets of basic materials has been extended. A modular concept for actual packaging container datasets allows the user an easy modeling of various types of packaging containers/boxes. In the area of paper and board, a comprehensive database for the production of various types of pulp, paper and board is provided, which is representative for the average European production situation. Outlook. Since wood is only limited and representative data for Europe is therefore not included, an update in the near future would be reasonable. Possible further extensions in the future could include various, final wooden products. For the data on paper/board, different levels of quality are observed, requiring a selective up-date of these data. Future extensions could include datasets for the import of pulp from overseas - especially from South America and Canada.

Abstract: Goal, Scope and Background. The ecoinvent database provides harmonised generic life cycle inventories for metal production and processing. They can be used as background data for different LCA applications. The goal of this paper is to provide an overview of the metals inventoried in ecoinvent. Beside, some methodological background information is given. The focus lies on a new methodology developed to inventorying joint resources. The implementation is shown in a case study of the production of primary copper on a global average. The respective process is assessed with Eco-indicator 99 (H,A) to identify dominant impacts within the production chain. Methods. In ecoinvent, a coupled production is inventoried in multi output unit processes. For database calculation, an allocation by economic revenue is applied. Elementary flows for resources, especially joint resources, include information oil type and quality of the resources. Results and Conclusion. With the presented method, the extraction of resources can be valuated based on the cost of restoration or the change in the future impact due to the extraction of a specific resource. The case study indicates, for copper / molybdenum production, that the mineral extraction is of minor importance compared to the metallurgical step according to the LCIA results. Air emissions of heavy metals are identified as main impacts. Also, the resource depletion shows a notable impact. The environmental impacts of metals from sulphidic ores, however, are underestimated by neglecting emissions from tailings for lack of reliable data. Recommendation and Perspective. Impact assessment methods will have to be updated to account for different grades of ore. The ecoinvent database should be enlarged by more inventories of technically important metals and alloys, e.g. by gold, silver, solders, etc. for the electronics industry and by specific steel and aluminium alloys. Reliable composition data of sulphidic tailings and transfer coefficients for their disposal considering Acidic Rock Drainage (ARD) are to be developed as well.

Abstract: Sustainability has been enshrined as a goal of society to ensure that the satisfaction of present needs does not compromise the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It is thus a social objective, achievable only where all areas of society co-operate in fulfilling the associated demands. Ecological sustainability is, in turn, a basic prerequisite for sustainable economic and social development. The first step in formulating an effective response to this challenge, focused solely on the environmental issues, entails a quantification of the contribution required from the various areas of human activity for the achievement of sustainable development. Without binding sub-targets for the different sectors, it will be all but impossible to move systematically towards a sustainable society. These benchmarks for sustainable construction therefore set out to define the requirements to be met by buildings and structures in contributing to the achievement of a sustainable society. The permissible impact of buildings, in terms of energy demand and pollutant loads, during construction, maintenance and operation is determined. The analysis focuses on identifying the permissible levels of loads based on the specific energy consumption per in 2 and year for heating, hot water, electricity and construction. A conscious attempt is made to combine existing methods with the general political consensus by taking account of: the ecological scarcity method [G. Brand, A. Scheidegger, O. Schwank, A. Braunschweig, Bewertung in Okobilanzen mit der Methode der okologischen Knappheit (Life cycle analysis using ecological scarcity method), Environmental Publication no. 297, Swiss Agency for the Environment, Forests and Landscape (SAEFL), 1997] used to define critical pollutant loads: the limitation of greenhouse gas emissions specified by the intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC) [Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2001, IPCC Third Assessment Report, www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/]: the demands of the 2000 W society [Leichter leben - Ein Verstandnis fur unsere Ressourcen als Schlussel zu einer nachhaltigen Entwicklung - die 2000-Watt-Gesellschaft (Easier living - understanding our resources as the key to sustainable development - they resources. 2000 Watt society), novatlanis, sia, energieschweiz, January 2005] for the conservation of energy The study shows that buildings designed to the Passive House standard just about comply with the requirements for sustainable construction, provided electricity generation is based largely on renewable or low-CO2 resources (Swiss power supply mix). The targets are substantially harder to meet where mainly fossil-fuel-generated electricity (European supply mix UCTE) is used. (c) 2005 Elsevier B.v. All rights reserved.

Abstract: Introduction. This paper provides an overview on the content of the ecoinvent database and of selected metholodogical issues applied on the life cycle inventories implemented in the ecoinvent database. Goal, Scope and Background. In the year 2000, several Swiss Federal Offices and research institutes of the ETH domain agreed to a joint effort to harmonise and update life cycle inventory (LCI) data for its use in life cycle assessment (LCA). With the ecoinvent database and its actual data v1.1, a consistent set of more than 2'500 product and service LCIs is now available. Method. Nearly all process datasets are transparently documented on the level of unit process inputs and outputs. Methodological approaches have been applied consistently throughout the entire database content and thus guarantee for a coherent set of LCI data. This is particularly true for market and trade modelling (see, for example, electricity modelling), for the treatment of multioutput and of recycling processes, but also for the recording and reporting of elementary flows. The differentiation of diameter size for particulate matter emissions, for instance, allows for a more comprehensive impact assessment of human health effects. Data quality is quantitatively reported in terms of standard deviations of the amounts of input and output flows. In many cases qualitative indicators are reported additionally on the level of each individual input and output. The information sources used vary from extensive statistical works to individual (point) measurements or assumptions derived from process descriptions. However, all datasets passed the same quality control procedure and all information relevant and necessary to judge the suitability of a dataset in a certain context are provided in the database. Data documentation and exchange is based on the EcoSpold data format, which complies with the technical specification ISO/TS 14048. Free access to process information via the Internet helps the user to judge the appropriateness of a dataset. Concluding Remarks. The existence of the ecoinvent database proves that it is possible and feasible to build up a large interlinked system of LCI unit processes. The project work proved to be demanding in terms of co-ordination efforts required and consent identification. One main characteristic of the database is its transparency in reporting to enable individual assessment of data appropriateness and to support the plurality in methodological approaches. Outlook. Further work on the ecoinvent database may comprise work on the database content (new or more detailed datasets covering existing or new economic sectors), LCI (modelling) methodology, the structure and features of the database system (e.g. extension of Monte Carlo simulation to the impact assessment phase) or improvements in ecoinvent data supply and data query. Furthermore, the deepening and building up of international co-operations in LCI data collection and supply is in the focus of future activities.

Abstract: Goal, Scope and Background. The present paper describes the goal and scope of building material inventories in the ecoinvent database and gives an overview of its content. The ecoinvent database provides generic life cycle inventories for building material production and related processing. They can be used as background data for different LCA applications. Their geographical and temporal scope is Switzerland or Europe and the year 2000. Methods. Data is inventoried as unit processes. Consistency throughout different sources is heeded by systematically estimating missing data. Infrastructure is consequently considered. Different disposal options are modelled. Results and Conclusion. The ecoinvent data provide a harmonised basis for different kinds of building materials. Even though not all datasets could be established on the same quality level, the results generally are believed to be comparable. Since data are generic, they are, however, not suitable to directly compare specific products. Disposal is relevant for the environmental burdens of uses of building materials. Complete life cycles have to be assessed. For this purpose, cumulative energy demand (CED) is not a suitable indicator. Recommendation and Perspective. In future versions of ecoinvent, data quality could be further improved. The database should be extended to include further building materials from secondary materials. To do so, the methodological treatment of secondary materials needs special attention.

Abstract: Goal, Scope and Background. This paper gives an overview on how the wood and packaging material production is inventoried in ecoinvent. Packaging materials have been a very important topic in the area of Life Cycle Assessment for more than twenty years. Wood is the most important renewable material and regenerative fuel used worldwide, and an important raw material for paper / board. Several methodological problems arising when inventorying wood for material and energetic uses in a generic database are discussed in more detail. Within the ecoinvent project, the Swiss data base for life cycle inventory data, two reports are dedicated to these two important topics - report No. 9 for wood and report No. 11 for packaging materials. Methods. The whole wood chain has been modeled in a consistent way. This allows one to use this data for LCAs of building materials, bioenergy or paper production. The data represent average technologies used in Central Europe in the year 2000. A revenue-based co-product allocation approach is used for the different outputs. Correction factors are introduced for the consistent modeling of mass-based, material inherent wood properties such as solar energy, carbon uptake and land use. For packaging materials, the datasets represent European average data for the most often used materials as well as specific datasets for the production of actual packaging boxes and containers. Results and Discussion. For wood, revenue-based allocation and the use of the correction factors for mass-related wood properties are shown and explained. For packaging materials, the importance of the raw material wood to the total load is shown. Furthermore trends in the data inventories for board packaging materials over the last two decades are discussed: mainly due to the increased comprehensiveness of the data, higher cumulative emissions can be observed. Conclusion. For wood, the database ecoinvent provides consistent datasets for the entire chain from forestry to intermediate products such as timber, different types of wood-based boards, chips, pellets, etc. For packaging materials, the number of datasets of basic materials has been extended. A modular concept for actual packaging container datasets allows the user an easy modeling of various types of packaging containers/boxes. In the area of paper and board, a comprehensive database for the production of various types of pulp, paper and board is provided, which is representative for the average European production situation. Outlook. Since wood is only limited and representative data for Europe is therefore not included, an update in the near future would be reasonable. Possible further extensions in the future could include various, final wooden products. For the data on paper/board, different levels of quality are observed, requiring a selective up-date of these data. Future extensions could include datasets for the import of pulp from overseas - especially from South America and Canada.

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Abstract: Umicore Precious Metal Refining (UPMR) runs a high-tech industrial metal refinery which recovers 17 different metals from end-of-life consumer products and from by-products of the non-ferrous industry. We present an approach for an attributive gate-to-gate LCA study of this system, which is characterised by multi-input/multi-output processes, changing feed compositions and time lags. We propose five assumptions to reduce the complexity of the highly dynamic system. We compiled inventory data for over thirty sub-processes and allocated it over the metals passing the sub-process by either a mass-based or metal revenue based allocation. The exemplary results for rhodium, platinum, tellurium and copper (impact assessment method: global warming potential) show a high dependence of allocation choice and different patterns of the metals for metal revenue based allocation due to the high volatility of prices.

Abstract: Emerging technologies such as information and communication-, photovoltaic- or battery technologies are expected to significantly increase the demand for scarce metals in the near future. The recently developed methods to evaluate the criticality of mineral raw materials typically provide a �snapshot� of the criticality of a certain material at one point in time by using static indicators both for supply risk and for the impacts of supply restrictions or economic importance. While allowing for insights into the mechanisms behind the criticality of raw materials, these methods cannot account for continuous changes in products and/or activities over time. We propose an approach which goes beyond this static state of the art insofar as it includes the dynamic interactions between different possible demand and supply configurations as a precondition for the evaluation of criticality. The framework developed integrates an agent-based behavior model, where demand emerges from individual agent decisions and interaction, into a dynamic material flow model, representing the materials� stocks and flows across their lifetime. Within this framework, the evaluation of criticality is exemplarily specified for the environmental dimension by applying life-cycle assessment methodology.

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Abstract: Vor dem Hintergrund der rasant zunehmenden Verbreitung von Anwendungen der Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) untersucht das Forschungsprojekt mögliche zukünftige Auswirkungen eines massenhaften Einsatzes von RFID-Tags im Konsumgüterbereich auf die Umwelt und die Abfallentsorgung. Der gegenwärtige Einsatz von RFID-Tags stellt die derzeitigen Entsorgungssysteme für Siedlungsabfall zwar vor keine nennenswerten Herausforderungen. Die dynamische Entwicklung der RFID-Märkte kann aber die Entsorgungssysteme in Zukunft vor Probleme stellen, wenn nicht vorsorgend gehandelt wird. Neben der Ermittlung der aktuellen und zukünftig zu erwartenden Mengen eingesetzter RFID-Tags, der Beschreibung derzeitiger Entsorgungswege für RFID-Tags im Siedlungsabfall sowie der Erstellung und Quantifizierung von Zukunftsszenarien zielt das Projekt darauf, Handlungsempfehlungen für einen umweltverträglich optimierten Einsatz von RFID-Tags in Deutschland abzuleiten. Mit diesem Bericht liegt erstmalig eine systematische quantitative Darstellung des zukünftigen Einflusses von RFID-Tags auf die Abfallentsorgung unter enger Einbeziehung der betroffenen Akteure vor. Der Untersuchungsrahmen erstreckt sich auf die Entsorgungssysteme für Siedlungsabfall in Deutschland mit einem Zeithorizont bis 2022. Das Vorhaben fokussiert auf den Eintrag passiver RFID-Tags in den Siedlungsabfall, die insbesondere auf Konsumgüter und deren Verpackungen angebracht sind. Die Eintragspfade Glas-, Papier/Pappe/Karton- und Leichtverpackungs-Getrenntsammlung sowie die Restabfallbehandlung, einschlie�lich des Eintrags von RFID-Tags in Ersatzbrennstoffe (EBS) und Sekundärbaustoffe werden umfassend analysiert. Bioabfall wird im Rahmen eines Exkurses diskutiert. Das Forschungsprojekt adressiert potenzielle Risiken von RFID-Tags in der Siedlungsabfallentsorgung. Mögliche Chancen zur Verbesserung des Recyclings durch den Einsatz von RFID-Tags, z.B. bei elektrischen und elektronischen Geräten, werden nicht behandelt.

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Abstract: With the increasing scarce metals demand from emerging technologies such as information-, photovoltaic- or battery technologies, a (scientific and public) debate has arisen over the ques-tion, if the diffusion of these technologies could possibly be limited by future supply restrictions for mineral raw materials. Recently, several indicator-based assessment methods have been developed to evaluate the criticality of mineral raw materials, for example by the National Research Council or the European Commission. The main drawback of these methods is that they typically provide a �snapshot� of the criticality of a certain material at one point in time by using static indicators for supply risk and impact of supply restrictions or economic importance. Although these methods provide insights into the mechanisms behind the criticality of raw materials, they cannot account for changes in products or activities over time. Moreover, they do not fully consider the evolution of background systems on which these products or activities depend (e.g. energy - and raw material supply chains). The approach we propose goes beyond this state of the art insofar as it includes dynamic interactions between different possible demand and supply configurations as a precondition for the evaluation of criticality. In our integrated framework, demand emerges from individual agent decisions, while the supply chain is represented by material stocks and flows. As a consequence, the framework links an agent-based demand model with a dynamic material flow model. In addition, it also includes a module for the subsequent evaluation of criticality, which is exemplarily specified for the environmental dimension of criticality by applying life-cycle assessment methodology. In our contribution we will sketch the framework and discuss first experiences from its implementation in a case study related to rare earth elements.

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Abstract: Large and growing amounts of construction waste are produced annually in Switzerland. Even tough in 1997 82% of the mineral construction waste in Switzerland was recycled, the recycling rates differed significantly across regions. Furthermore, though technical solutions for higher applications are available, reused mineral construction materials are usually used for low-grade applications. These phenomena are mostly related to decisions made at the level of the individual system agents. Throughout the preconstruction phase, interacting stakeholder groups i.e. contractors, architects, engineers and awarding authorities, decide about the application of different construction materials. They consider mainly technical, economic and aesthetic attributes. The ecological aspect of different mineral material applications is largely neglected. That is, the stakeholders� behavior regarding the construction material choice, having ecological consequences, is basically determined by others than ecological considerations. We present an approach to analyze and operationalize multi-attribute decisions based on the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) for an agent based model (ABM). AHP as a multi attribute utility method allows for considering the ecological utility besides the dominating technical and economic attributes of different material application options. Additionally, AHP consistency analysis provides empirical information about the type of decision to be implemented in the ABM.

Abstract: Large and growing amounts of construction waste are produced annually in Switzerland. Even tough in 1997 82% of the mineral construction waste in Switzerland was recycled, the recycling rates differed significantly across regions ranging from 67% in the Canton of Basel City to 87% in the Canton of Valais. In order to support policy and industrial decision-makers and give recommendations for a sustainable construction material management, we analyze and model the supply and demand for recycling mineral construction materials (RMCM). In doing so, we combine an agent based decision-making model of the RMCM demand with a regionalized material flow model of RMCM supply. The analysis shows that the demand for RMCM is determined by four interacting agent groups i.e. contractors, architects, engineers and awarding authorities. Their decisions are based on various internal (e.g. personal experience, image or social desirability) and external (e.g. material prices, law, norms and trends) decision parameters. The supply for RMCM is manly driven by the regional building and infrastructure stocks and their life cycles defined by the local construction, reconstruction and demolition rates. The main influencing factors for the RMCM demand model (decision parameters) and supply model (building and infrastructure stocks and flows) both show spatial differences. Considering a combination of the two models highlights that their influencing factors are mutually dependent on two levels; on the individual level (e.g. personal experience depends on the utilized materials in construction) as well as on the regional level (e.g. RMCM prices depend on the local construction waste flows). We present and discuss an integrative modeling approach which captures both the spatial variability of the main influencing factors and their interdependencies on the individual and regional level.

Abstract: Introduction Large amounts of construction waste are produced annually in Switzerland. The volume of 11 million tons in 1997 are likely to increase in the future because of the increasing requirements of accommodation space per capita and the decreasing availability of construction land, leading to demolition of old buildings. In 1997 the overall recycling rate of construction waste in Switzerland was quite high (82%), ranging from 67% in the Canton of Basle City to 87% in the Canton of Valais. That is, in Switzerland recycling is not equally accepted nor applied in all regions. Even though technical solutions for higher applications are available, reused mineral construction materials from buildings are usually down-cycled and used as uncompounded foundation layers. The aim of the study is to support policy and industrial decision-makers and give recommendations for a sustainable construction material management. For doing so, we developed a comprehensive simulation approach consisting of. 1. A material and energy flow model simulates the amount of applied construction materials and supplied secondary products and the associated energy flows in different scenarios. 2. Based on individual agents� decisions and interactions, a decision-making model simulates the demanded construction materials with agent based modeling. 3. The combination of the decision-making with the material and energy flow model allows for the assessment of the ecological sustainability of different scenarios. This poster focuses on the decision-making model. We present an approach to analyze the decision-making structure i.e. decision interaction, options, decision parameters of the main system agents, providing a basis for the simulation of the decision process with agent based modeling. Decision-making model Introduction decision-making: Recycling rates and applications are mostly related to decisions made at the individual system agents� level. It is considered that parameters such as image of recycling materials, risk perception, lack of experience with alternative materials or lack of trust on recommendations have an important influence on reducing demand for recycling material. Furthermore, the demand for recycling construction materials is not only determined by the decisions of one agent group. Several agent groups i.e. contractors, architects, engineers and the awarding authorities interact and are likely to have different ways to impact the system. However, to the authors` knowledge, so far, it has not been analyzed what the decision-structure of these agents are, how their decisions interact, and how they cumulatively affect the demand for recycling materials. Method: With a system impact analysis we identified the important system agents regarding the utilization of recycling construction materials. Their decision-structures (decision interaction and options) were develo¬ped in semi-structured expert interviews. We determined the decision-making parameters (criteria) in an expert work¬shop. The criteria weights representing the importance of a certain criteria were operationalized in a survey. Finally the decision-making processes of the agent groups were implemented in an agent based model. Preliminary results: The results show the specific decision matrixes regarding the utilization of recycling materials for each agent group and how the relevant agents interact. Each decision is based on various internal (e.g. personal experience or social desirability) and external (e.g. material prizes or norms and laws) decision criteria. These criteria vary among the agent groups e.g. private awarding authorities decide on construction specification considering social, economic and ecological aspects. The social aspects include image and trend of recycling construction materials and the social desirability of sustainable buildings. For public awarding authorities the social aspects additionally include the governmental policies for sustainable construction. Within each stakeholder group the decision criteria are the same, but their importance (weight) is different at the individual agent level. One awarding authority makes the construction specification considering almost only economic aspects whereas another awarding authority might focus more on social and ecological aspects. The interaction between the agents finally leads to a specific demand for recycling materials. Conclusion This procedure shows how to identify the important system agents, survey their decision-making structure and interaction and how to determine their decision-making parameters. Furthermore, we will show how the results can be integrated in a broader system simulation allowing for a sustainability assessment of different scenarios based on individual decision-making processes.

Abstract: Large amounts of building materials are demanded annually in Switzerland. The volume of 60 Million tons new building resources used in 2002 are likely to increase in the future because of the increasing requirements of accommodation space per capita. On the other hand, more and more mineral construction waste will be generated due to deconstruction or demolition of old buildings. Closing material cycles is technically feasible to a certain extent and might provide economic and ecologic benefits depending on various situational and contextual factors. However, potential (economic and ecologic) benefits are often not realized since decisions to use recycled mineral construction materials are not made by a single, well informed decision maker but by the interaction of various actors. Furthermore, the main agents affecting the demand for recycled mineral construction materials, i.e., contractors, architects, engineers and the awarding authorities, are likely to have different ways to impact the system. However, to the authors` knowledge, it has never been analyzed how these agents make their decisions, how their decisions interact, and how they cumulatively affect the demand for recycling materials. The present study analyzes the decision structure of the important system agents and simulates the process with agent based modeling (ABM). ABM allows for generating results concerning present and future demands based on agents´ decision trees. In our study we build a specific decision tree regarding the utilization of recycling materials for each agent group. Each decision in these trees is based on various internal (e.g., required accommodation space or personal experience) and external (e.g., material prizes or norms and laws) parameters. Decisions are modeled based on probabilities, e.g., a higher demand for recycling materials occurs if these materials are recommended by the Canton; a lower demand results from a lacking competitiveness against virgin materials. The interaction between the agents finally leads to a specific demand for recycling materials. Changes in the internal and external parameters are modeled in form of scenarios providing different input values. The decision trees are developed in semi-structured expert interviews and calibrated against the agents´ behavior analyzed in structured interviews from a larger sample. We will present several scenarios for recycling of construction materials and discuss the effects of planned policies regarding the demand for recycling materials and the environmental consequences.

Abstract: Large amounts of construction waste are produced annually in Switzerland. The volume of 11 million tons in 1997 are likely to increase in the future because of the increasing requirements of accommodation space per capita and the decreasing availability of construction land, leading to demolition of old buildings. In 1997 the overall recycling rate of construction waste in Switzerland was quite high (82%), ranging from 67% in the Canton of Basle City to 87% in the Canton of Valais. Reused mineral construction materials from buildings are usually down-cycled and used as uncompounded foundation layers. That is, in Switzerland recycling is not equally accepted nor applied in all regions. These emergent phenomena are mostly related to decisions made at the level of the individual system agents. It is considered that parameters such as acceptance, risk perception, lack of experience with alternative materials or lack of trust on recommendations have an important influence on reducing demand for recycling material. Furthermore, the main agents affecting the demand for recycling construction materials, i.e., contractors, architects, engineers and the awarding authorities, are likely to have different ways to impact the system. However, to the authors` knowledge, so far, it has not been analyzed what the decision-making trees of these agents are, how their decisions interact, and how they cumulatively affect the demand for recycling materials. The present study analyzes the decision structure of the important system agents and simulates the process with agent based modeling (ABM). ABM allows for generating results concerning present and future demands based on agents´ decision trees. In our study we build a specific decision tree regarding the utilization of recycling materials for each agent group. Each decision in these trees is based on various internal (e.g., required accommodation space or personal experience) and external (e.g., material prizes or norms and laws) parameters. Decisions are modeled based on probabilities, e.g., a higher demand for recycling materials occurs if these materials are recommended by the Canton; a lower demand results from a lacking competitiveness against virgin materials. The interaction between the agents finally leads to a specific demand for recycling materials. Changes in the internal and external parameters are modeled in form of scenarios providing different input values. The decision trees are developed in semi-structured expert interviews and calibrated against the agents´ behavior analyzed in structured interviews from a larger sample. We will present several scenarios for recycling of construction materials and discuss the effects of planned policies regarding the demand for recycling materials.