Abstract: BACKGROUND: This study sought to examine the associations between indices of socio-economic deprivation in childhood and later involvement in crime. METHOD: Data were gathered as part of the Christchurch Health and Development Study. In this project a cohort of 1,265 children born in Christchurch in 1977 have been studied from birth to age 21 years. The measures collected included: self-reported property and violent crime (15-16, 17-18, and 20-21 years); officially recorded convictions for property/violent crime; measures of childhood socio-economic status; and a series of intervening factors, including parenting (use of physical punishment, maternal care, family change, parental attachment, parental offending), individual (conduct and attention problems), school (truancy, suspensions, examination performance, scholastic ability), and peer factors (affiliations with deviant and substance using peers). RESULTS: The results suggest that childhood socio-economic disadvantage was associated with clear increases in rates of both self-reported crime and officially recorded convictions. However, using block recursive negative binomial regression models a range of parental, individual, school, and peer factors were found to intervene between socio-economic disadvantage and crime. Following introduction of these measures into the models, the association between socio-economic disadvantage and crime became both statistically and practically non-significant. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that the higher rates of crime found amongst young people from socio-economically disadvantaged families reflect a life course process in which adverse family, individual, school, and peer factors combine to increase individual susceptibility to crime.

Abstract: AIMS: To examine the associations between the use of cannabis and arrest/conviction for cannabis related offences. METHODS: Data on cannabis use and arrests/convictions for cannabis related offences were gathered during the course of a 21-year longitudinal study of a birth cohort of Christchurch (New Zealand) born children (N=983). Information on cannabis use, arrests and convictions was gathered over the period from 16 to 21 years. RESULTS: By the age of 21, over two thirds of the cohort had used cannabis on at least one occasion with 5% using cannabis on more than 400 occasions. Amongst cannabis users, 5.1% had been arrested for a cannabis related offence and 3.6% had been convicted of an offence. There was a strong association between the extent of cannabis use and risks of arrest/conviction: over a quarter of those using cannabis on more than 400 occasions had been arrested or convicted for a cannabis related offence compared with less than 1% of those using cannabis on fewer than ten occasions. M�ori, those with a previous arrest record for non cannabis related offences and those reporting involvement in violent/property offending were more likely to be arrested or convicted than other cohort members having the same level of cannabis use; in addition, males were more likely to be convicted than females with the same level of cannabis use. Arrest/conviction for a cannabis related offence did not reduce the use of cannabis: of those arrested/convicted, 95% either increased their use or continued with the same level of cannabis use subsequent to their arrest. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study reinforce concerns about laws relating to the use and possession of cannabis. The findings show that the law was administered in an inefficient way, the application of the law was biased, and the law was ineffective in reducing cannabis use.

Abstract: OBJECTIVES: This research aimed to examine the prevalence of risky driving behaviour among young people, the characteristics of those who engage in risky driving behaviour, and the association between risky driving behaviours and accident risk. METHODS: Data were gathered during the course of the Christchurch Health and Development Study. As part of this longitudinal study, data were gathered on self-reported risky driving behaviours (18-21 years), traffic accidents (18-21 years) and a variety of individual characteristics for 907 participants who reported having driven a motor vehicle. RESULTS: More than 90% of drivers engaged in some form of risky driving behaviour. Those most likely to engage in frequent risky driving behaviours were: males (p < 0.0001), who exhibited alcohol (p < 0.0001) or cannabis abuse (p < 0.001) in adolescence, who were involved in violent/property crime (p < 0.01) and who affiliated with delinquent or substance-using peers (p < 0.05). There was a strong (p < 0.0001) association between the extent of risky driving behaviour and traffic accident risk. CONCLUSIONS: Risky driving behaviours are common among young people, particularly among young males prone to externalizing behaviours (substance abuse, crime and affiliations with deviant peers). Risky driving is strongly linked to traffic accident risk. IMPLICATIONS: There is a continued need to target risky driving behaviours among young people. Efforts to reduce risky driving should be targeted in particular at the high-risk group of young males prone to externalizing behaviours. More generally, the results suggest the need for a multistrategy approach to the reduction of traffic accidents that focuses on the full spectrum of risky driving behaviours.

Abstract: Data gathered from 2 longitudinal studies (the Christchurch Health and Development study of a birth cohort of 1,265 New Zealand participants studied to 21 years and the Quebec Study of 240 Canadian participants studied to 13 years) was used to examine the linkages between deviant peer affiliations and depression in adolescence. Both studies produced similar conclusions: a) increasing peer affiliations were associated with significant (p < .0001) increases in depressive symptoms; b) the associations between peer affiliations and depression could not be fully explained by confounding factors; and c) peer affiliations and depressive symptoms were linked by a causal chain process in which deviant peer affiliations led to increased externalizing behaviors with the negative consequences of these behaviors leading to depression.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: The aims of this research were to use data gathered over the course of a 21 year longitudinal study to examine the linkages between cannabis dependence at ages 18 and 21 and rates of psychotic symptoms taking into account previous symptom levels and other confounding factors. METHOD: Data were gathered during the course of the Christchurch Health and Development Study (CHDS). The CHDS is a longitudinal study of a birth cohort of 1,265 children who have been studied from birth to age 21. As part of this study, data were gathered on cannabis dependence and psychotic symptoms at ages 18 and 21. RESULTS: Young people meeting DSM-IV criteria for cannabis dependence had elevated rates of psychotic symptoms at ages 18 (rate ratio = 3.7; 95% CI 2.8-5.0; P < 0.0001) and 21 (rate ratio = 2.3; 95% CI 1.7-3.2; P < 0.0001). These associations were adjusted for previous psychotic symptoms and a range of other confounding factors using a generalized estimating equation model. This analysis showed that after adjustment for confounding factors, those meeting criteria for cannabis dependence still had an increased rate of psychotic symptoms (rate ratio = 1.8; 95 % CI 1.2-2.6; P < 0.005). CONCLUSIONS: The results show that the development of cannabis dependence is associated with increased rates of psychotic symptoms in young people even when pre-existing symptoms and other background factors are taken into account.

Abstract: The present study was designed to assess the influence of deviant peer affiliations on crime and substance use in adolescence/young adulthood. Data were used from a 21-year longitudinal study of health, development, and adjustment of a birth cohort of 1,265 New Zealand children. Annual assessments of deviant peer affiliations were obtained for the period from age 14-21 years, together with measures of psychosocial outcomes including, violent crime, property crime, alcohol abuse, cannabis abuse, and nicotine dependence. Affiliating with deviant peers was found to be significantly associated with each of these outcomes (p < .0001). Statistical control for confounding by both fixed and time dynamic factors reduced the strength of association between deviant peer affiliations and outcome measures. Nevertheless, deviant peer affiliations remained significantly associated (p < .0001) with all outcomes. For violent/property crime, cannabis and alcohol abuse there was significant evidence of age-related variation in the strength of association with deviant peer affiliations, with deviant peer affiliations having greater influence on younger participants (14-15 years) than older participants (20-21 years). These results suggest that deviant peer affiliations are associated with increased rates of a range of adjustment problems in adolescence/young adulthood with deviant peer affiliations being most influential at younger ages.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: It is well documented that females have higher rates of internalizing disorders (anxiety, depression) than males. It is also well known that females have higher exposure to childhood sexual abuse and sexual assault. Recently, it has been proposed that the higher levels of internalizing disorders in females may be caused by their greater exposure to sexual violence. METHOD: Data were gathered as part of the Christchurch Health and Development Study. In this study a cohort of 1265 children born in Christchurch, New Zealand, in 1977 have been studied from birth to age 21 years. The measures collected included: major depression and anxiety, childhood sexual abuse and adolescent sexual assault. RESULTS: Findings confirmed the established conclusion that internalizing disorders are over twice as common in females than males (ORs 2.2-2.7). In addition, it was found that females were exposed to higher rates of sexual violence than males (ORs 5.1-8.4). Statistical control for gender related differences in exposure to sexual violence reduced the associations between gender and anxiety and depression. Nonetheless, even after such control, gender was significantly (P < 0.0001) related to both anxiety (OR = 1.8; 95% CI, 1.3-2.4) and depression (OR = 1.9; 95% CI, 1.4-2.3). CONCLUSIONS: Greater female exposure to sexual violence may be a factor that contributes to greater female susceptibility to internalizing disorders. However, even after adjustment for gender differences in exposure to sexual violence it is clear that a substantial relationship between gender and internalizing disorder persists.

Abstract: AIM: To examine the associations between frequency of cannabis use and psychosocial outcomes in adolescence/young adulthood. DESIGN: A 21-year longitudinal study of the health, development and adjustment of a birth cohort of 1265 New Zealand children. MEASUREMENTS: Annual assessments of the frequency of cannabis use were obtained for the period from age 14-21 years, together with measures of psychosocial outcomes including property/violent crime, depression, suicidal ideation, suicide attempt and other illicit drug use. FINDINGS: The frequency of cannabis use was associated significantly with all outcomes, and particularly other illicit drug use. Statistical control for confounding by both fixed and time-dynamic factors substantially reduced the strength of association between cannabis use and outcome measures. Nevertheless, cannabis use remained significantly (P < 0.05) associated with all outcomes and particularly other illicit drug use, after adjustment for confounding. For the measures of crime, suicidal behaviours and other illicit drug use there was evidence of age related variation in the strength of association with cannabis use, with younger (14-15 years old) users being more affected by regular cannabis use than older (20-21 years old) regular users. However, the association between cannabis use and depression did not vary with age. CONCLUSIONS: Cannabis use, and particularly regular or heavy use, was associated with increased rates of a range of adjustment problems in adolescence/ young adulthood-other illicit drug use, crime, depression and suicidal behaviours-with these adverse effects being most evident for school-aged regular users. The findings reinforce public health concerns about minimizing the use of cannabis among school-aged populations.

Abstract: OBJECTIVE: The views of consumers following contact with treatment for eating disorders represent an underresearched aspect of service provision. The aim of this paper is to examine patterns of consumer satisfaction following contact with a specialist eating-disorders service. METHOD: Using both a structured and an open-ended questionnaire format, consumer perspectives were sought routinely through postal survey 3 months after the point of first contact. Responses were analysed from 120 patients who returned their questionnaires during the 2-year period ending in December 1998. RESULTS: Although the structured response format indicated high rates of satisfaction, the open-ended format revealed five categories describing the perceived best and worst aspects following consultation with the service. The category of therapeutic alliance drew the majority of positive comments, while the most frequently cited worst aspect of consultation was the category of treatment type. CONCLUSIONS: People with eating disorders form a unique group of mental health consumers to survey for satisfaction. While approval ratings prompted by both structured and open-ended questions were high, and centred around the theme of therapeutic alliance, the most frequent source of negative commentary was activities and structures considered essential by traditional treatment modalities. This provides important insights into the predicaments of people with eating disorders presenting for treatment, and the importance of developing satisfaction surveys to accommodate such predicaments and concerns.

Abstract: Both increases (sensitization) and decreases (desensitization) in oral irritation have been reported in response to repeated short-term stimulation by compounds such as capsaicin, zingerone and menthol. It is unclear why one irritant would show sensitization and another desensitization, and this is further complicated by substantial inter-individual variation in response patterns. These variations may be the result of individual differences such as that represented by sensitivity to 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP), which has been associated with variation in the overall intensity of irritation. In addition, comparisons between irritants have almost always involved inter-study comparisons, entailing different subject groups and frequently different methods. In the studies reported here, responses to three irritants-capsaicin, cinnamaldehyde and ethanol-were examined as a function of PROP taster status. A common core of subjects also received all three irritants, allowing an assessment of the extent to which different response patterns between irritants seen previously were the result of different properties of the irritants themselves. Over a series of ten stimuli presented at 1 min intervals, PROP taster status differentiated subject responses on the basis of overall intensity, but not the pattern of responses over repeated stimulation. The group response to ethanol and cinnamaldehyde was desensitization, a pattern also shown by most of the individual subjects. In contrast, the group response to capsaicin was neither clear sensitization nor desensitization, reflecting much greater individual variability in response patterns. It is suggested that the time course to a single irritant stimulus largely determines between irritant response variations, while the inter-stimulus interval (ISI) used for a given irritant will have critical values for showing predominantly sensitization or desensitization.