Abstract: BACKGROUND: Individuals with Intellectual Disability (ID) exhibit reduced levels of compliance to exercise, including treadmill walking. The purpose of this study was to measure the effects of several training conditions on compliance to participation in treadmill walking of children with moderate to severe ID. METHOD: Criteria for compliance were the averaged number of times participants attempted to discontinue walking during two 5-min exercise sessions of treadmill walking at an intensity of 65-75% of predicted maximal HR. Fifteen children aged 5-11 with moderate to severe ID participated in the study. Training conditions were (a) close supervisor's position, (b) distant supervisor's position, (c) positive reinforcement, and (d) paired modeling. RESULTS: General linear mixed model statistics revealed significant differences in favor of the paired modeling and positive reinforcement compared to the other conditions. Leaning forward was the most frequent type of participants' attempt to stop exercising. CONCLUSIONS: Paired modeling and positive reinforcement should be considered within treadmill training programs for children with moderate to severe ID.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to describe international perspectives concerning terms, definitions, and meanings of adapted physical activity (APA) as (a) activities or service delivery, (b) a profession, and (c) an academic field of study. Gergen's social constructionism, our theory, guided analysis of multiple sources of data via qualitative methodology. Data sources were online surveys, APA literature, and expertise of researchers. Findings, with the identification of further considerations, were provided for each APA component to stimulate reflection and further inquiry among international professionals with diverse backgrounds.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to explore the effect of two awareness activities on children's attitudes towards peers with a disability. The Children's Attitudes towards Peers with Disability scale including cognitive, behavioral and emotional subscales was administered before and after two types of short-term interventions. The first included 75 children from grades 7-9, who actively participated in the workshop simulating movement activities. The second intervention included 121 students of the 10th grade, who observed their peers participating in a wheelchair-basketball activity together with elite wheelchair-basketball players. Results indicated significant effects in the cognitive and behavioral domains. Post-test findings confirmed that intervention bridged the difference in the cognitive domain observed between those with and without previous contact at pretest.
Abstract: This article proposes a theory- and practice-based model for adapting physical activities. The ecological frame of reference includes Dynamic and Action System Theory, World Health Organization International Classification of Function and Disability, and Adaptation Theory. A systematic model is presented addressing (a) the task objective, (b) task criteria, (c) limitation and enablement criteria, (d) performance errors, and (e) adaptation suggestions. Four individual case examples are described, referring to the conceptual model and depicting its use in various settings of physical activity, including physical education, rehabilitation, competition, and recreation.
Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To determine the effectiveness of aquatic interventions in children with neuromotor impairments. DESIGN: A search of electronic databases that included MEDLINE, PubMed, ERIC, PsychLit, PEDro, Sport Discus, CINAHL and Cochrane between 1966 and January 2005 was conducted using the following keywords: 'hydrotherapy', 'aquatic therapy', 'water exercise', 'aquatics', 'adapted aquatics', 'aquatic exercise' and 'swimming'. An additional resource, the Aquatic Therapy Research Bibliography until 1999, was explored manually. Titles and abstracts were assessed manually according to the following inclusion criteria: (1) population (children with neuromotor or neuromuscular impairments), (2) intervention (aquatic programme). Articles were reviewed according to merit of design, population participants and outcome measures with respect to International Classification of Function and Disability terminology (changes in body function, activity level and participation). RESULTS: Eleven of the 173 articles that were retrieved met the inclusion criteria: one randomized control trial, two quasi-experimental studies, one cohort study, two case control studies and five case reports. Seven articles reported improvement in body functions, and seven articles reported improvement in activity level. Two of the four articles that investigated outcome measures regarding participation described positive effects while the findings of the other two revealed no change. None of the articles reported negative effects due to aquatic interventions. CONCLUSION: According to this review, there is a substantial lack of evidence-based research evaluating the specific effects of aquatic interventions in this population.
Abstract: This study examined the relation of functional classification in wheelchair basketball and its relation to the theory of psychological goal perspectives for 59 adult male competitive players. Participants completed the 13-item Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire designed for wheelchair basketball players. Analyses indicated that Flemish wheelchair basketball players were similar in their goal perspectives to able-bodied athletes. The present sample was predominantly task-oriented. No significant differences were found between high-point and low-point players in their goal perspectives, indicating that players can be severely or minimally disabled and still share the same goal perspective and the same motivational profile. These findings are not consistent with the hypothesis that severity of disability is associated with the motivation profile of disabled athletes.
Abstract: This study evaluates the reliability of isokinetic testing of the knee flexors and extensors in children with cerebral palsy (CP). Twelve children (seven girls, five boys), aged 9 to 15 years, participated in this study. The children's strength was measured bilaterally, using a dynamometer. Each participant was tested twice at an interval of 1 week. During each session, the participant performed five consecutive cycles of knee extension and flexion. Testing velocity was set at 90 degrees/s, and the range of motion was 80 degrees, starting with the knee flexed at 80 degrees and ending in full extension. The measured variable was the peak torque. Reliabilities were determined using intraclass coefficient (ICC) with two-way ANOVA model. The ICCs for individual sessions range from 0.90 to 0.99. ICCs for the eight repetitions over the two sessions range from 0.95 to 0.98. The findings indicate that measuring isokinetic strength in the tested population is highly reliable and should be considered in rehabilitation protocols.
Abstract: A computerized search of literature on sport for disabled persons referenced in the MEDLINE (Index Medicus) and the SPORTDiscus (Sport International Resource Center SIRC) databases yielded 253 records published during the past 15 years. An analysis of these records by disability, age, and scientific discipline indicated that (a) publications related to physiology were most frequent (41%), followed by publications related to psychology (29%); (b) 58% of all records had wheelchair users as subjects; and (c) children were exclusive subjects in 10% and females in less than 2% of the records reviewed in this search.
Abstract: Anaerobic exercise testing has been applied since the 1970s as a procedure for estimating the capacity of local energy mechanisms dominating short term exercise. Compared with lower-body anaerobic testing, upper-body anaerobic testing is relatively new and less fully investigated. The reported data in this area are limited, and there is a paucity of reference values. For this review, the literature was searched by computerised inquiries of international and local databases, as well as personal access to PhD theses and congress proceedings. This article reviews the existing literature, covering a period of 20 years from 1976 to 1995. Data are reported concerning the findings of variables relevant to the anaerobic capacity of wheelchair users. The research findings revealed in the literature published so far are analysed here with particular attention paid to the methods and instrumentation used (type of ergometer and protocol utilised in the tests). Limitations in existing instrumentation and research designs and goals for further study have been suggested. Specific sections analyse the relevance of anaerobic performance variables to the classification and activity level of the individuals involved and their relevance to daily life and sports-related physical performance. Inter-relationships observed between anaerobic and aerobic capacity indices are discussed with respect to the limiting nature of local muscular fatigue over central processes. This information may be helpful in better understanding the exercise limitations and potential of wheelchair users with lower-limb impairments. Thus, clinical application of anaerobic fitness testing in these individuals may be enhanced.
Abstract: Swimming and aquatic exercise are known for their effects on respiration in normal and asthmatic people. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the effect of a 6-month movement and swimming program on the respiratory function and water orientation skills of children with cerebral palsy (CP). Forty-six kindergarten children aged 5 to 7 years were assigned either to a treatment or control group. The intervention program consisted of swimming sessions twice weekly and sessions of group physical activity in a gym once weekly, each session lasting 30 minutes, for a period of 6 months. Children in the control group were treated (30 minutes, 4 days per week) with Bobath physical therapy. The children in the treatment and control groups had comparable disability types, age, and anthropometric measurements. A 2 x 2 (group x test period) repeated measures ANOVA design confirmed a significant effect of interaction of time with group. The results also confirmed that children with CP have reduced lung function compared with normative data for children in the same age category. The treatment program improved baseline vital capacity results by 65%, while children in the control group improved by only 23%. The movement and swimming exercise program had a better effect than a physical therapy routine implemented in a previous study, consisting of respiratory exercise alone.
Abstract: In this study the effect of an experimental movement and swimming program of six months on motor function in the water measured by means of the Water Orientation Score and self-perception measured by means of the Martinek-Zaichkowsky Self-concept Scale was investigated. 23 children participated in the program, completing both tests prior to and after the intervention. An age-, sex-, and disability-matched control group of 23 children completed only the Self-concept Scale at pre- and posttest. Analysis indicated a significant improvement in Water Orientation Score of children in the trained group, but no effect on scores of the Self-concept Scale.
Abstract: The purpose of this article is to describe a Sports-Medical Assessment Protocol (SMAP) for athletes with a disability. The purposes of the SMAP are to identify medical problems and therapeutic goals for supplementary training programmes for athletes with a disability, and to provide baseline data for future follow up. The SMAP includes an interview, cardiorespiratory assessment and physical and functional examination. Data were collected from assessment protocols of 14 male athletes with various neurological disorders who qualified to participate in the Atlanta Paralympic Games in 1996. Nine of the athletes had some range of motion (ROM) limitations, one had shoulder pain and one low back pain following physical stress. Two athletes with postpolio presented muscle fasciculation and one of them also presented bilateral Carpal Tunnel Syndrome. Based on the results we concluded that utilizing the SMAP may contribute to trainers' and athletes' (with a disability) awareness of the physical needs of elite athletes as well as participants in leisure sport activities.
Abstract: Fifty individuals with lower limb impairments including spinal cord injury, polio and amputations underwent aerobic and anaerobic arm-cranking tests in a standardized laboratory setting. Based on linear regression models applied with age as dependent variable aerobic performance variable including HRmax (R = 0.395, P = 0.004), and POaer (R = 0.31, P = 0.021) were subjected to ANCOVA adjusting for age in order to determine the significance of participation intensity (competitive vs leisure) and type of physical impairment. Anaerobic performance variables were not influenced by age and thereby subjected to 1-Way ANOVA with the same independent variables. Participation intensity and type of impairment significantly discriminated (P < 0.001) between athletes in all power variables. Linear regression models have shown moderate but significant (P < 0.001) relationship with functional ability (bases on International Wheelchair Basketball Federation classification system). In anaerobic mean power (MP) classification accounted for 42% of the variance, while in anaerobic peak power (PP) and aerobic Power (POaer) for 38% and 30% respectively. By means of a post hoc Tukey analysis significant differences were observed between athletes with a high level paraplegia (class 1) and those with one leg affected by polio or amputations (classes 4, 4.5). Athletes with low level paraplegia and two legs affected by polio (classes 2-3.5) had values in-between. Based on the descriptive evaluation, a three group scheme was conceptualized and resubjected to ANOVA. Significant intergroup differences were thus obtained only for PP. Descriptive PP data for each group were transformed into a five category table in order to provide reference values for fitness-estimation in males with lower limb impairments of various etiologies.
Abstract: This study compared the aerobic and the anaerobic performance of 11 elite Israeli wheelchair basketball players in arm ergometric tests and corresponding wheeling tasks, derived from basketball practice. The ergometric tests included a continuous aerobic maximal peak work capacity test (PWCmax), and a 30-second arm-all-out anaerobic test of mean anaerobic capacity (MANC) and peak anaerobic power (PANP). The wheeling tasks included a 428 meter race, slalom and 6-minute endurance race. We examined the relationship of performance variables to personal variables, age, bodyweight and classification as athletes. The results were analysed by Spearman correlation tables, revealing the following: (1) HRmax (maximal heart rate) correlated highly (r = .884-.962) with performance in all wheeling tasks; (2) no relationship was found between variables in the arm ergometric tests and variables in the wheeling tasks; (3) bodyweight correlated significantly with MANC and PWCmax (r = .817 and .783 respectively). This relationship was better than the other independent variables (classification and age). It is concluded that HRmax can be used for performance evaluation in wheelchair basketball practice, and that arm ergometric work capacity has only limited predictive value of performance in wheeling tasks.
