Abstract: Minerals and metals are finite resources, and recent evidence suggests that for many, primary production is becoming more difficult and more expensive. Yet these resources are fundamentally important for society-they support many critical services like infrastructure, telecommunications and energy generation. A continued reliance on minerals and metals as service providers in modern society requires dedicated and concerted governance in relation to production, use, reuse and recycling. Lithium provides a good example to explore possible sustainable governance strategies. Lithium is a geochemically scarce metal (being found in a wide range of natural systems, but in low concentrations that are difficult to extract), yet recent studies suggest increasing future demand, particularly to supply the lithium in lithium-ion batteries, which are used in a wide variety of modern personal and commercial technologies. This paper explores interventions for sustainable governance and handling of lithium for two different supply and demand contexts: Australia as a net lithium producer and Switzerland as a net lithium consumer. It focuses particularly on possible nation-specific issues for sustainable governance in these two countries' contexts, and links these to the global lithium supply chain and demand scenarios. The article concludes that innovative business models, like 'servicizing' the lithium value chain, would hold sustainable governance advantages for both producer and consumer countries.
Abstract: Electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) pervades modern lifestyles, but its quick obsolescence is resulting in huge quantities of EEE to be disposed of. This fast-growing waste stream has been recognized for its hazard potential. The European Union's (EU) Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive was essentially in response to the toxicity of e-waste - to ensure that it was collected and treated in an environmentally sound manner. Since then, the WEEE Directive has expanded its aims to include recovery of valuable resources as a means to reduce raw material extraction. With these objectives in mind, the Directive sets a common minimum legislative framework for all EU member states. However, the transposition of the Directive into national legislations has meant many differences in actual implementation models. There are 27 national transpositions of the Directive with different definitions, provisions and agreements. Each legislation reflects national situations, whether they are geographical considerations, legislative history, the influence of lobby groups and other national priorities. Although this diversity in legislations has meant massive problems in compliance and enforcement, it provides an opportunity to get an insight into the possible operational models of e-waste legislation. Building on the study by the United Nations University commissioned by the European Commission as part of its 2008 Review of the WEEE Directive, the paper identifies some key features of the Directive as well as legislative and operational differences in transposition and implementation in the various members states. The paper discusses the successes and challenges of the Directive and concludes with lessons learnt from the European experience.
Abstract: A decentralized power generation plant fuelled by straight jatropha oil was implemented in 2006 in Ranidhera, Chhattisgarh, India. The goal of this study was to assess the environmental sustainability of that electrification project in order to provide a scientific basis for policy decisions on electrifying remote villages.
A full Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) was conducted on jatropha-based rural electrification and then compared with other electrification approaches such as photovoltaic (PV), grid connection and a diesel-fuelled power generator. In summary, the jatropha-based electrification in Ranidhera reduces greenhouse gas emissions over the full life cycle by a factor of 7 compared to a diesel generator or grid connection. The environmental performance is only slightly improved, mainly due to the high air pollution from pre-heating the jatropha seeds. With additional measures oil extraction and overall efficiency could be further improved. However, environmental benefits can only be achieved if jatropha is cultivated on marginal land and land use competition can be excluded. Under these conditions, jatropha-based electricity generation might be a useful alternative to other renewable electrification options, as the technology is very sturdy and can be maintained even in remote and highly under-developed regions.
Abstract: Battery-powered electric cars (BEVs) play a key role in future mobility scenarios. However, little is known about the environmental impacts of the production, use and disposal of the lithium ion (Li-ion) battery. This makes it difficult to compare the environmental impacts of BEVs with those of internal combustion engine cars (ICEVs). Consequently, a detailed lifecycle inventory of a Li-ion battery and a rough LCA of BEV based mobility were compiled. The study shows that the environmental burdens of mobility are dominated by the operation phase regardless of whether a gasoline-fueled ICEV or a European electricity fueled BEV is used. The share of the total environmental impact of E-mobility caused by the battery (measured in Ecoindicator 99 points) is 15%. The impact caused by the extraction of lithium for the components of the Li-ion battery is less than 2.3% (Ecoindicator 99 points). The major contributor to the environmental burden caused by the battery is the supply of copper and aluminum for the production of the anode and the cathode, plus the required cables or the battery management system. This study provides a sound basis for more detailed environmental assessments of battery based E-mobility.
Abstract: E-waste, a relatively recent addition to the waste stream in the form of discarded electronic and electric equipment, is getting increasing attention from policy makers as the quantity being generated is rising rapidly. One of the most promising policy options to address this issue is to extend file producers responsibility for their products beyond the point of sale, until end-of-product-life. This paper briefly introduces the concept of extended producer responsibility (EPR) and its applicability in the area of the end-of-life management of electronic and electrical equipment (EEE). It then examines the decade-long experience of Switzerland in using EPR to manage its e-waste, elaborating oil the experience of the Swiss system in overcoming specific issues, and finally wrapping lip with it synopsis of the lessons for policy makers. We consider each issue as an enquiry of questions confronting a policy maker and the choices that may present themselves. The five issues discussed are: (i) the challenges in getting an EPR based system started; (ii) Securing financing to ensure I self-sustaining and smooth functioning system: (iii) organising a logistics network for the take back and collection of the e-waste; (iv) ensuring compliance of the various actors involved; and finally (v) reducing the threat of monopolistic practices. (C) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Abstract: Electrical and electronic equipment pervades modernlifestyles and its usage is growing rapidly around theworld. Quick obsolescence and newer functionalities areresulting in huge quantities of these products becomewaste. This fast growing waste stream has been subjectto regulations based on the concept of extended producerresponsibility in several countries, mainly in Europe. Thispaper looks at the progress of legislating this particularwaste stream with special emphasis on the three countries,namely China, India and South Africa, within theframework of the Swiss global e-waste programme, afterlooking briefly at the status of transposing the WEEEDirective (waste electrical and electronic equipment) inEurope.
Abstract: Electronic waste, or e-waste, is an emerging problem as well as a business opportunity of increasing significance, given the volumes of e-waste being generated and the content of both toxic and valuable materials in them. The fraction including iron, copper, alummium, gold and other metals in e-waste is over 60%, while pollutants comprise 2.70%. Given the high toxicity of these pollutants especially when burned or recycled in uncontrolled environments, the Basel Convention has identified e-waste as hazardous, and developed a framework for controls on transboundary movement of such waste. The Basel Ban, an amendment to the Basel Convention that has not yet come into force, would go one step further by prohibiting the export of e-waste from developed to industrializing countries. Section 1 of this paper gives readers an overview on the e-waste topic-how e-waste is defined, what it is composed of and which methods can be applied to estimate the quantity of e-waste generated. Considering only PCs in use, by one estimate, at least 100 million PCs became obsolete in 2004. Not surprisingly, waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) today already constitutes 8% of municipal waste and is one of the fastest growing waste fractions. Section 2 provides insight into the legislation and initiatives intended to help manage these growing quantities of e-waste. Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) is being propagated as a new paradigm in waste management. The European Union's WEEE Directive, which came into force in August of 2004, makes it incumbent on manufacturers and importers in EU states to take back their products from consumers and ensure environmentally sound disposal. WEEE management in industrializing countries has its own characteristics and problems, and therefore this paper identifies some problems specific to such countries. The risky process of extracting copper from printed wiring boards is discussed as an example to illustrate the hazards of the e-waste recycling industry in India. The WEEE Knowledge Partnership programme funded by seco (Swiss State Secretariat for Economic Affairs) and implemented by Empa has developed a methodology to assess the prevailing situation, in order to better understand the opportunities and risks in pilot urban areas of three countries-Beijing-China, Delhi-India and Johannesburg-South Africa. The three countries are compared using an assessment indicator system which takes into account the structural framework, the recycling system and its various impacts. Three key points have emerged from the assessments so far: a) e-waste recycling has developed in all countries as a market based activity, b) in China and India it is based on small to medium-sized enterprises (SME) in the informal sector, whereas in South Africa it is in the formal sector, and c) each country is trying to overcome shortcomings in the current system by developing strategies for improvement. (c) 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Abstract: The management and recycling of waste electrical and electronic equipment WEEE was assessed in the city of Delhi, India. In order to do this, the personal computer was defined as the tracer for which a model was designed. The model depicts the entire life cycle of the tracer, from production through sale and consumption-including reuse and refurbishment-to the material recovery in the mainly informal recycling industry. The field work included interviews with the relevant stakeholders, transect walks and literature study, which was followed by a software-supported material flow analysis (MFA) of the whole life cycle chain of the tracer item. In addition to the MFA, several economic aspects of the recycling system were investigated. The study revealed that the life span of a personal computer has considerable influence upon the system, most notably in the following two aspects: (i) a prolonged life span creates value by means of refurbishing and upgrading activities, and (ii) it slows down the flow rate of the whole system. This is one of the simplest ways of preventing an uncontrolled increase in environmentally hazardous emissions by the recycling sector. The material recovery of the system is mainly driven by the precious metal content of personal computers. A first estimate showed that precious metal recovery contributes to over 80% of the personal computer materials' market value, despite the small quantity of them found in computers. (c) 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Abstract: This paper presents insights from a decade of development cooperation projects in electrical and electronic waste (e-waste) management and associated research activities, conducted by Empaâs Technology and Society Lab together with a number of international partners. The quantification of e-waste volumes is a prerequisite for the development of sustainable solutions in developing countries. Challenges include getting an understanding of the accuracy of data and the dynamic behavior of e-waste flows and their constituents. In addition, the thermodynamic and physical properties of the material mix found in e-waste needs to be understood in order to achieve efficient recovery of the material resources. The past and still on-going application of hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment will remain a dominant issue in sustainable e-waste management systems in the future, if environmental, health and safety hazards, as well as cross-contamination into recovered secondary resources, are to be avoided. Furthermore, tailored solutions will have to take into account the informal nature of e-waste recycling in developing countries. Although continuing miniaturization of electronic devices can be observed, overall volumes and mass flows are expected to increase steadily in the future, as appliances are getting cheaper and hence more accessible, especially in the non-saturated markets of developing countries.
Abstract: This work describes a method developed to simplify and reduce the cost of the standardized testing required to measure the energy consumption of electric motorcycles before they are sold on the Swiss market. The robust algorithms for estimating four characteristic parameters of electric two-wheelers are based on a linear dynamics model that is considered to be as simple as possible yet as complex as necessary to characterize the vehicles. The model equations are investigated analytically for their ability to find unique solutions, and it is shown that multiple solutions may exist. The algorithms are tested for their ability to handle various data frequencies, levels of noise, and initial guesses. Ultimately it is found that these methods effectively enable the use of simulation models trained on real-world driving to run mandated standard test cycles in place of expensive dynamometer testing to estimate on-road energy use.
Notes: 1,4Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA erikw@mit.edu
2ETH-Zürich, Rämistr. 101, Zürich, CH-8092, Switzerland
3EMPA, Lerchenfeldstr. 5, St.Gallen, CH-9014, Switzerland
1,5Singapore University of Technology and Design, 20 Dover Drive, Singapore,138682
Abstract: The consumption and disposal of electrical and electronic equipment forms a dynamic sys-tem. This paper applies system dynamics methodology to assess mass flows of end-of-life equipment. In the paper, two modelling approaches to forecasting disposal of consumer dura-bles are discussed, namely the âdelay modelâ approach and the âreverse diffusion modelâ ap-proach. Applying the same dataset on the disposal of cathode ray tube personal computer monitors in Switzerland to both the approaches, the estimates and forecasts of the models are compared against real system data. The comparison provides an opportunity to discuss further improvements to both modelling approaches.
Abstract: In Switzerland, WEEE management systems aiming at an optimised, environmentally sound disposal of hazardous components and recovery of economically valuable materials are implemented for more than 15 years. Still, today recovery rates of many critical metals are low. In order to evaluate strategies to increase critical metal recovery rates within existing Swiss end of life (EoL) product collection and recovery systems (including EoL vehicles), the following guiding questions were, are or will be addressed in a number of projects: What is the state of the art of the âcriticalityâ discourse? What do we know about concentrations of critical metals in consumer products? Which overall critical metal stocks and flows result from forward and reverse diffusion of these products? What would a sustainable recovery strategy for critical metals look like? Based on the first results of the projects tentative answers can be given, however, for critical metals such as rare earth elements significant knowledge gaps still remain.
Notes: Joint International Conference and Exhibition on Electronics Goes Green (EGG), Berlin, GERMANY, SEP 09-12, 2012
Abstract: The rapid pace of technological change, the highly diffused implementation of electronics in
everyday life and a decrease in prices has made appliances for home and office equipment
both affordable and widely used. The high growth rates combined with increasing
obsolescence rates result in large quantities of end-of-life electrical and electronic equipment to be disposed of. In many countries flows of electric and electronic waste have never been quantified due to the lack of data and missing take-back schemes. Furthermore, studies to collect the data and to assess the e-waste quantity are often expensive and very complex. In this study a model was developed and applied to derive e-waste flows from existing indicators which are published periodically by international organizations (e.g. International Telecommunication Union, World Bank) and which are often cheaply accessible. The method allows estimating e-waste quantities in a certain region or country as well as on a global scale. A probabilistic model approach accounts for the fact that for many countries calibration data is not available. Results are shown for personal computers which show one of the highest growth rates. Further electronic appliances as well as whole e-waste categories are planned to be introduced in the model in the future.
Abstract: The rapid pace of technological change, the highly diffused implementation of electronics in everyday life and a decrease in prices has made appliances for home and office equipment both affordable and widely used. The high growth rates combined with increasing obsolescence rates result in large quantities of end-of-life electrical and electronic equipment to be disposed of. In many countries flows of electric and electronic waste have never been quantified due to the lack of data and missing take-back schemes. Furthermore, studies to collect the data and to assess the e-waste quantity are often expensive and very complex. In this study a model was developed and applied to derive e-waste flows from existing indicators which are published periodically by international organizations (e.g. International Telecommunication Union, World Bank) and which are often cheaply accessible. The method allows estimating e-waste quantities in a certain region or country as well as on a global scale. A probabilistic model approach accounts for the fact that for many countries calibration data is not available. Results are shown for personal computers which show one of the highest growth rates. Further electronic appliances as well as whole e-waste categories are planned to be introduced in the model in the future.
Abstract: Electronic waste or e-waste recycling in India is mainly motivated by the recovery of value contained in the PWBs (printed wiring boards), which is retrieved by extracting precious metals (mainly gold, silver, palladium) with wet chemical processes, involving highly toxic substances such as mercury and cyanide. These works are done by untrained people, resulting in a high impact on their health and the environment. In contrast to this practice, in Europe, valuable metals from relevant e-waste fractions are recovered efficiently in large industrial integrated smelters and refineries with profit margins allowing for environmentally safe handling of the critical substances.This study shows that the Indian informal sector generates a high environmental impact, as a relatively large amount of chemicals are used for the extraction and are subsequently emitted to the environment without any treatment, while only recovering a significantly smaller fraction of the value contained in the test material compared to an integrated precious metal smelter and refinery.The results provide preliminary figures allowing for proposing new business models to divert certain fractions from the informal sector to dedicated industrial smelters, increasing the profitability of all stakeholders and simultaneously substantially relieving environmental burden and safety and health issues.
Notes: Auftraggeber: Bundesamt für Umwelt (BAFU), Abt. Abfall und Rohstoffe, CH-3003 Bern Das BAFU ist ein Amt des Eidg. Departements für Umwelt, Verkehr, Energie und Kommunikation (UVEK).
Auftragnehmer: Empa, Abteilung Technologie und Gesellschaft.
Begleitung BAFU: Michael Hügi, Isabelle Baudin.
Hinweis: Diese Studie wurde im Auftrag des Bundesamtes für Umwelt (BAFU) verfasst. Für den Inhalt ist
allein der Auftragnehmer verantwortlich.
Abstract: Diese Arbeit wurde im Zeitraum Juli 2009 bis Mai 2011 mit dem Ziel ausgeführt, ein automati-siertes Verfahren zur Ermittlung des Energiebedarfs von Elektro-Zweirädern in Standardzyklen zu entwickeln, welches durch Identifikation der wichtigsten physikalischen Parametern aus Fahrtestdaten den Energiebedarf berechnet. Das entwickelte Verfahren nutzt ein eigens dazu entwickeltes telematisches Datenlogging, um die Fahrdaten auf einem zentralen Server zu speichern, wo sie mit Algorithmen, die im Rahmen dieser Arbeit entwickelt wurden, verarbeitet werden. Die Testdaten, welche mit drei verschiedenen Fahrzeugen erhoben wurden, umfassen insgesamt 70km Strassen und Rollen Fahrten. Die entwickelte Methode identifiziert die Schlüsselparameter aus normalen Fahrten sehr effektiv und berechnet daraus den Energieverbrauch für Standardzyklen mit guter Genauigkeit.
Notes: Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN), Waste and Resources Division, CH-3003 Bern. The FOEN is an agency of the Swiss Federal Department of the Environment, Transport, Energy and Communications (DETEC).
Notice: This study has been performed on behalf of the Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN). For the content, the contractor alone is responsible.
Abstract: Auftraggeber: Bundesamt für Umwelt (BAFU), Abt. Abfall und Rohstoffe, CH-3003 Bern Das BAFU ist ein Amt des Eidg. Departements für Umwelt, Verkehr, Energie und Kommunikation (UVEK).
Auftragnehmer: Empa, Abteilung Technologie und Gesellschaft.
Begleitung BAFU: Michael Hügi, Isabelle Baudin.
Hinweis: Diese Studie wurde im Auftrag des Bundesamtes für Umwelt (BAFU) verfasst. Für den Inhalt ist
allein der Auftragnehmer verantwortlich.
Abstract: 300 Millionen Computer müssen weltweit pro Jahr entsorgt werden. Das sind riesige Abfallberge, speziell in Ländern wie China und Indien mit ihrer boomenden Elektronik-Industrie. Bei der Entsorgung dieses E-Schrotts gelangen grosse Mengen giftige Schadstoffe in die Umwelt und gefährden die Gesundheit der Menschen. Ein Projekt des seco und der Empa soll Schweizer Recycling-Knowhow in die Welt hinaus tragen.
Abstract: Qual è l'impegno di EMPA nel mondo rispetto tema dell'e-waste?
Tre desideri per il 2020: come risolvere il problema dell'e-waste?
What's the role of EMPA worldwide when it comes to e-waste research and activities to solve the e-waste problem?
Your three main wishes for 2020 to solve the e-waste problem
Abstract: Qual è l'importanza del recupero di alcuni metalli preziosi e speciali dall'e-waste?
What's the importance of precious and special metals recovery from e-waste?
Abstract: Qual è l'importanza del recupero delle risorse naturali dai flussi di rifiuti?
Quali sono i processi di recupero utilizzati in paesi in via di sviluppo e i loro effetti collaterali?
What's the importance of recovery of raw materials from post-consumer waste streams?
Which are the approaches in developing countries to recover materials from e-waste and their side effects?
